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Glossary of Pali terms

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abhijjhā
abhiññā
abrahmacariya
abyāpāda
adhicittasikkhā
adhipaññāsikkhā
adhisīlasikkhā
ādīnava
ādīnavasaññā
adinnādāna
adinnādāna veramaṇī
adosa
adukkhamasukha
adukkhamasukhā vedanā
āhāra
āhāre paṭikūlasaññā
ājīva
ajjhatta
akālika
ākāsānañcāyatana
ākiñcaññāyatana
akusala
akusalakammapatha
akusalamūla
alobha
āloka
amata
amoha
anāgāmī
anāgāmita
anagāriya
ānāpāna
ānāpānassati
anavajja
anatta
anattasaññā
anicca
aniccasaññā
anicce dukkhasaññā
ānisaṃsa
anusaya
anussati
anussava
anuttaro purisadammasārathī
āpatti
apāya
appamāda
appicchatā
āraddhavīriya
arahant
arahatta
arañña
ariya
ariya aṭṭhaṅgika magga
ariyasacca
ariyasāvaka
arūpabhava
asantuṭṭhitā
asappurisa
āsava
āsavānaṃ khayañāṇa
asmimāna
assāda
assutavā
asubha
asubhanimitta
asubhasaññā
asura
ātāpī
atta
attavādupādāna
avihiṃsā
avijjā
āvuso
āyasmā
āyatana
ayoniso manasikāra



abhijjhā: covetousness, acquisitiveness, desire for what one does not have. Being abhijjhā·lu is defined at AN 10.176 in terms of covetousness or jealousy towards others' possessions. At AN 3.67, lobha is explained as having abhijjhā for synonym.

Abhijjhā is one of the three mental akusala·kamma·pathas.

Abhijjhā is remarkably combined with domanassa, to form a compound (abhijjhā·domanassa), which appears exclusively either in the Satipaṭṭhāna formulas or in the Sense restraint Formulae.

Abhijjhā is occasionally mentioned as one of the five nīvaraṇas, as a makeshift for kāma·cchanda.

Abhijjhā is part of the first upakkilesa mentioned at MN 7: abhijjhā·visama·lobha (covetousness and unrighteous greed).



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abhiññā: [abhi+ñā]

1) original meaning (in older texts): direct knowledge, higher knowledge, complete understanding - in a broad sense, without specification. Heendeniya suggests that it means yathā bhūta ñāṇa·dassana (knowledge and vision of things as they really are).

♦ Juxtaposed with (ekanta·nibbidā, virāga, nirodha,) upasama, sambodhi and Nibbāna (typically referring to the outcome of the practice of the ariya aṭṭh·aṅgika magga, e.g. SN 56.11).

♦ The attainment of arahatta is described with a list of phenomena to be experienced through abhiññā: āsavānaṃ khaya, an·āsava ceto·vimutti and paññā·vimutti (e.g. AN 3.91).

♦ At SN 45.159 and AN 4.254, the ariya aṭṭh·aṅgika magga is said to lead to another list of 11 dhammas to be dealt with by means of abhiññā: the five khandhas (to be fully understood), avijjā and bhava·taṇhā (to be abandoned), vijjā and vimutti (to be experienced), samatha and vipassanā (to be developed).

2) late meaning: there is a list of six higher powers or potencies attained by the practice of samādhi beyond the fourth jhāna, which are called together abhiññās, but that list appears only in one sutta, the late and catechistic DN 34. These powers are otherwise described without such collective designation, as at AN 3.102. It is only in the later litterature (commentaries etc.) that the term abhiññā comes to be used, (and most of the time) with reference to these six dhammas. At SN 8.7 however, the word chaḷ·abhiññā (the six abhiññās) is listed among realizations such as paññā·vimutti and the three vijjas, which has probably been, among others, a cause for the arising of this terminology.



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abrahmacariya: [a+brahmacariya]

that which is contrary to the pure life, which naturally would be interpreted as essentially consisting in the breakage of one of the precepts, especially by engaging in sexual intercourse: a·brahmacariya replaces kāmesu·micchā·cāra in the list of the bodily akusala·kamma·pathas when intended for bhikkhus (kāmesu·micchā·cāra at AN 10.176 vs a·brahmacariya at MN 27). In this context, a·brahmacariya constitutes the first pārājika offense:

Yo pana bhikkhu bhikkhūnaṃ sikkhā·sājīva·samāpanno sikkhaṃ apaccakkhāya dubbalyaṃ anāvikatvā methunaṃ dhammaṃ paṭiseveyya antamaso tiracchāna·gatāyapi, pārājiko hoti asaṃvāso ti.

Should any bhikkhu participating in the training and livelihood of the bhikkhus, without having renounced the training, without having declared his weakness engage in sexual intercourse, even with a female animal, he is defeated and no longer in affiliation.

See further details in Thanissaro Bhikkhu's Monastic Code.

However, a definition of a·brahmacariya is given by Ānanda at SN 45.18 as consisting in micchā·magga, i.e. micchā·diṭṭhi, micchā·saṅkappa etc.

a·brahmacariya is listed among things that lead a bhikkhu to an apāya or niraya (e.g. AN 5.286).



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abyāpāda: [a+byāpāda]

non-ill-will, absence of malevolence. At AN 3.67, adosa is explained as having a·byāpāda for synonym. The Vibhanga naturally relates a·byāpāda with mettā, although the latter is only part of the former, which should also include sates of simple upekkhā.

♦ In this connection, the derived expression abyāpanna·citto hoti (he has a citta devoid of byāpāda) appears in the exposition of the three mental kusala·kamma·pathas (e.g. AN 10.176), explained with the compound 'appaduṭṭha·mana·saṅkappa' and the description: 'ime sattā a·verā hontu a·byāpajjā, a·nīghā sukhī attānaṃ pariharantū' (qv.).

♦ A similar expression, abyāpanna·citto viharati (he dwells with citta devoid of byāpāda), appears in the Nīvaraṇānaṃ Pahāna formula, explained with the compound sabba·pāṇa·bhūta·hitānukampī (friendly and compassionate towards all living beings).

a·byāpāda·saṅkappa is one of the three constituents of sammā·saṅkappa.

♦ Since byāpāda is a nīvaraṇa, a·byāpāda as a state of mind is necessary for successful meditation and attaining the four jhānas.

♦ The derived adjective, abyāpajjha, notably appears as a factor in the appamāṇā ceto·vimutti formulas.



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adhicittasikkhā: [adhi+citta+sikkhā]

training in higher mind. A definition is given by the Buddha at AN 3.90: adhi·citta·sikkhā is identical with the culture of sammā·samādhi, i.e. the development of the four jhānas.

Adhi·citta·sikkhā is one of the three sikkhās, together with adhi·sīla·sikkhā and adhi·paññā·sikkhā. It is said of these three trainings at AN 3.82 that they are 'ascetic tasks of an ascetic' (samaṇassa samaṇa·karaṇīyāni), at AN 3.93 that they are 'urgent tasks of a bhikkhu' (bhikkhussa accāyikāni karaṇīyāni), and at AN 6.30 that they constitute the 'supreme training' (anuttariyaṃ sikkhā) for the purification of beings, etc. (formula in the style of the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta)

♦ They can even replace the Pātimokkha, in some cases (AN 3.85).



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adhipaññāsikkhā: [adhi+paññā+sikkhā]

training in higher wisdom/ insight. A definition is given at AN 3.90. It consists of the understanding of the four ariya·saccas. At AN 3.91, though, adhi·paññā·sikkhā is defined as 'an·āsava ceto·vimutti paññā·vimutti' (liberation of the mind without impurities, liberation by discernment).

Adhi·paññā·sikkhā is one of the three sikkhās, together with adhi·sīla·sikkhā and adhi·citta·sikkhā. It is said of these three trainings at AN 3.82 that they are 'ascetic tasks of an ascetic' (samaṇassa samaṇa·karaṇīyāni), at AN 3.93 that they are 'urgent tasks of a bhikkhu' (bhikkhussa accāyikāni karaṇīyāni), and at AN 6.30 that they constitute the 'supreme training' (anuttariyaṃ sikkhā) for the purification of beings, etc. (formula in the style of the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta)

♦ They can even replace the Pātimokkha, in some cases (AN 3.85).



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adhisīlasikkhā: [adhi+sīla+sikkhā]

training in higher virtue. A definition is given by the Buddha at AN 3.90. It consists of a thorough undertaking of the Pātimokkha's rules.

Adhi·sīla·sikkhā is one of the three sikkhās, together with adhi·citta·sikkhā and adhi·paññā·sikkhā. It is said of these three trainings at AN 3.82 that they are 'ascetic tasks of an ascetic' (samaṇassa samaṇa·karaṇīyāni), at AN 3.93 that they are 'urgent tasks of a bhikkhu' (bhikkhussa accāyikāni karaṇīyāni), and at AN 6.30 that they constitute the 'supreme training' (anuttariyaṃ sikkhā) for the purification of beings, etc. (formula in the style of the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta)

♦ They can even replace the Pātimokkha, in some cases (AN 3.85).

♦ However, adhi·sīla·sikkhā is not only for bhikkhus, since it should also be undertaken by upāsakas, as they meet with their success (sampadā) or their prosperity (sambhava), lest it is their their failure (vipatti) as in AN 7.30, their decline (parihāna) as in AN 7.29, or their ruin (parābhava) as in AN 7.31.



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ādīnava: disadvantageous characteristic of phenomena, danger, drawback, disadvantage, bad result or consequence.

The antonym is ānisaṃsa. The ādīnava of a particular dhamma is often described as its characteristics of anicca, dukkha, and the fact that it has 'vipariṇāma·dhamma'. This is seen mainly in the case of each of the five khandhas (e.g. SN 12.26) and the twelve āyatanas (e.g. SN 35.13 and SN 35.14).

♦ Frequently mentioned in conjunction with assāda and nissaraṇa, often preceded by samudaya and atthaṅgama, as characteristics to be understood in detail for all saṅkhāras.

♦ This set of 3 or 5 investigations appears very often in the Saṃyutta Nikāya, and is applied to a large variety of dhammas, among which notably to kāma (in detail at MN 13), but also to duccarita (e.g. AN 5.241), the five khandhas (e.g. SN 22.74), particularly vedanā (e.g. MN 13), rūpa (e.g. MN 13), the 4 paccayas (e.g. SN 16.1), bhava (e.g. AN 4.10), the six phass·āyatanas (e.g. AN 4.10) etc.

♦ A very useful statement is made at SN 12.52: 'Upādāniyesu dhammesu ādīnav·ānupassino viharato taṇhā nirujjhati'.

ādīnava·saññā is defined at AN 10.60 with reference to kāya.

♦ On the ādīnava of kāma, MN 54 provides a powerful series of similes to describe them, which is referred to in a number of suttas.



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ādīnavasaññā: [ādīnava+saññā]

perception of drawbacks. This practice is explained at AN 10.60, with reference to kāya: it consists in a reflection on the various ills of the body.

♦ According to AN 7.27, so long as the bhikkhus practice ādīnava·saññā, only growth can be expected of them, not decline.

♦ Other perceptions usually associated with ādīnava·saññā include asubha·saññā, āhāre paṭikūla·saññā, sabba·loke an·abhirata·saññā, maraṇa·saññā, anicca·saññā, anicca·saññā, anicce dukkha·saññā, anatta·saññā, pahāna·saññā, virāga·saññā and nirodha·saññā.



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adinnādāna: [a+dinna+ādāna]

taking what is not given, theft, robbery. The definition is given at AN 10.176.

Adinn·ādāna is one of the three bodily akusala·kamma·pathas.

♦ For bhikkhus, it is a very serious matter, as it constitutes the second pārājika offense:

Yo pana bhikkhu adinnaṃ theyyasaṅkhātaṃ ādiyeyya - yathārūpe adinnādāne rājāno coraṃ gahetvā haneyyuṃ vā bandheyyuṃ vā pabbājeyyuṃ vā: ‘corosi bālosi mūḷhosi thenosī’ ti - tathārūpaṃ bhikkhu adinnaṃ ādiyamāno ayampi pārājiko hoti asaṃvāso ti.

Should any bhikkhu, in what is reckoned a theft, take what is not given from an inhabited area or from the wilderness - just as when, in the taking of what is not given, kings arresting the criminal would flog, imprison, or banish him, saying, "You are a robber, you are a fool, you are benighted, you are a thief" - a bhikkhu in the same way taking what is not given also is defeated and no longer in affiliation.

See further details in Thanissaro Bhikkhu's Monastic Code.

♦ The unpleasant consequences of adinn·ādāna are described at AN 8.40: its slightest result is loss of wealth.



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adinnādāna veramaṇī: [adinnādāna veramaṇī]

abstaining from taking what is not given.

Adinn·ādāna veramaṇī is the second of the pañcasīla.

♦ When describing the moral undertakings of a bhikkhu (e.g. MN 27), the following description is given: 'Adinn·ādānaṃ pahāya adinn·ādānā paṭivirato hoti dinn·ādāyī dinna·pāṭikaṅkhī, athenena suci·bhūtena attanā viharati,' for an explanation of which see the Ariya Sīlakkhandha Formulae.



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adosa: [a+dosa]

absence of aversion. At AN 3.67, a·dosa is explained as having a·byāpāda for synonym. Synonyms given in the Vibhanga: a·dussanā, a·dussitattaṃ (not being angry, not offending).

A·dosa is one of the three kusala·mūlas.

♦ According to AN 3.112, any kamma caused by a·dosa is anavajja and has sukha·vipāka (pleasant results).

♦ According to AN 6.39, a·dosa does not arise from dosa, but rather from a·dosa itself (na adosā doso samudeti; atha kho adosā adosova samudeti). And vice versa.



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adukkhamasukha: [a+dukkha+a+sukha]

neither-pleasant-nor-unpleasant, i.e. neutral. At MN 44, adukkham·asukha is explained as neva sātaṃ nāsātaṃ (neither agreeable nor disagreeable).

♦ In the majority of cases, adukkham·asukha qualifies one of the types of vedanā: see adukkham·asukhā vedanā.

Adukkham·asukha also qualifies the fourth jhāna, and is thus related to upekkhā: see the corresponding formula.

♦ In a few cases, adukkham·asukha qualifies a certain type of phassa (e.g. SN 12.62).



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adukkhamasukhā vedanā: [a+dukkha+a+sukha vedanā]

feeling which is neither-pleasant-nor-unpleasant, i.e. neutral. A definition is given at MN 44: 'yaṃ kho kāyikaṃ vā cetasikaṃ vā neva sātaṃ nāsātaṃ vedayitaṃ' (whatever is felt bodily or mentally as neither agreeable nor disagreeable). This definition is the same as the one given for upekkh·indriya at SN 48.38. At SN 48.37, it is explicit that adukkham·asukhā vedanā should be seen as the latter: 'yadidaṃ upekkh·indriyaṃ, adukkham·asukhā sā vedanā daṭṭhabbā'.

Adukkham·asukhā vedanā is one of the three (main) types of vedanā.

♦ According to SN 36.5, adukkham·asukhā vedanā should be seen as aniccata (adukkham·asukhā vedanā aniccato daṭṭhabbā).

Adukkham·asukhā vedanā are twofold: sāmisa or nirāmisa, as stated at AN 6.63: 'atthi sāmisā adukkhamasukhā vedanā, atthi nirāmisā adukkhamasukhā vedanā', although without further explanations.

♦ According to MN 44, adukkham·asukhā vedanā is 'ñāṇa·sukhā aññāṇa·dukkhā' (pleasant when accompanied by ñāṇa, and unpleasant without ñāṇa). Furthermore, avijjā is the counterpart of adukkham·asukhā vedanā (adukkham·asukhāya vedanāya avijjā paṭibhāgo), although the anusaya of avijjā does not necessarily underlie all adukkham·asukhā vedanā: (na sabbāya adukkham·asukhāya vedanāya avijj·ānusayo anuseti).

♦ According to SN 36.9, adukkham·asukhā vedanā share some important characteristics with other types of vedanās: 'aniccā, saṅkhatā, paṭicca·samuppannā, khaya·dhammā, vaya·dhammā, virāga·dhammā, nirodha·dhammā'.

♦ For other characteristics that adukkham·asukhā vedanā share with other vedanās, see there.



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āhāra:

1) concrete sense: food, alimentation.

♦ For bhikkhus, piṇḍapāta is a synonym of āhāra in this first meaning, and as such the formula of reflection on the paccayas is sometimes applied directly to āhāra (e.g. AN 4.37). This formula, often referred to as bhojane matt·aññutā, is analyzed here.

♦ Moderation in food is often praised in the suttas, as for example at AN 5.96: 'app·āhāro hoti, anodarikattaṃ anuyutto' (he eats only a little food, committed to not filling his stomach). Eating once a day is also often praised, as at AN 3.71: 'yāva·jīvaṃ arahanto eka·bhattikā' (as long as they live, the arahants take one meal a day) and MN 65, where it is said to result in few illnesses, few diseases, lightness, strength, and a pleasant abiding. See also the story of King Pasenadi at SN 3.13.

♦ The practice of āhāre paṭikūla·saññā is often recommended in the suttas (e.g. SN 46.74).

♦ It is interesting to note that in the formula describing pubbe·nivās·ānussati·ñāṇa (see here), āhāra is one of the few things that the practioner remembers about his past lives, along with his name, appearance, experience of pleasure and pain, and death.

♦ Meat eating is authorized for bhikkhus, under the ti·koṭi·parisuddha (pure in three aspects) rule: 'a·diṭṭhaṃ, a·sutaṃ, a·parisaṅkitaṃ' (not seen, not heard, not suspected). See MN 55.

2) figurative sense: support, nutriment. They are listed as four (e.g. at MN 9):

1. kabaḷīkāra
2. phassa
3. manosañcetanā
4. viññāṇa

They are described as follows: 'cattārome āhārā bhūtānaṃ sattānaṃ ṭhitiyā, sambhavesīnaṃ anuggahāya' (These four are nutriments for the sustainance of beings having come to existence and for the support of those who are seeking a new birth).

♦ The Buddha explains with powerful similes how the four āhāras should be considered at SN 12.63.

♦ The āhāras are said to originate and cease with taṇhā (e.g. at MN 9).

♦ In some suttas, āhāra has the meaning of condition and is close in meaning to paccaya (in its first, general sense) or hetu. For example, SN 46.51 details which phenomena 'feed' the five nīvaraṇas and the seven bojjhaṅgas. Another example is found at AN 8.39: having gone for refuge to the Buddha (buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gato hoti) is said to be a nourishment of happiness (sukhass·āhāra), and so are other refuges as well as the five precepts.

♦ As one would expect, there is a relationship between āhāra and rūpa or kāya. According to SN 22.56: 'āhāra·samudayā rūpa·samudayo; āhāra·nirodhā rūpa·nirodho' (with the arising of nutriment, there is arising of Form; with the cessation of nutriment, there is cessation of Form) and according to SN 47.42: 'āhāra·samudayā kāyassa samudayo; āhāra·nirodhā kāyassa atthaṅgamo' (with the arising of nutriment, there is arising of the body; with the cessation of nutriment, there is cessation of the body).



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āhāre paṭikūlasaññā: [āhāra paṭikūla+saññā]

perception of loathsomeness in food.

♦ According to AN 7.49, when one often applies his/her mind to this practice, he/she is automatically repulsed by rasa·taṇhā (craving for tastes).

Āhāre paṭikūla·saññā is described at AN 4.163 as participating of a painful mode of practice (dukkhā paṭipadā).

♦ The seven bojjhaṅgas can be developed in conjunction with āhāre paṭikūla·saññā (SN 46.74).

Āhāre paṭikūla·saññā appears always in a list, generally with asubha·saññā, maraṇa·saññā, and sabba·loke an·abhirata·saññā. They are often collectively recommended for the sake of understanding or removing rāga (e.g. AN 5.303).

♦ Other perceptions usually associated with āhāre paṭikūla·saññā include anicca·saññā, anicce dukkha·saññā, anatta·saññā, ādīnava·saññā, pahāna·saññā, virāga·saññā and nirodha·saññā.



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ājīva: livelihood, means of subsistence. For proper or upright livelihood, see sammā·ājīva. As to right or wrong livelihood, it is said of them at SN 45.1: 'micchā·kammantassa micchā·ājīvo pahoti' (in one of wrong action, wrong livelihood comes to be) and 'sammā·kammantassa sammā·ājīvo pahoti' (in one endowed with sammā·kammanta, sammā·ājīva comes to be), which makes wrong livelihood fall back on breaking of one of the five sīlas or engaging in one of the ten akusala·kamma·pathas.

1) For bhikkhus:

♦ In the definition of adinnādāna veramaṇī, given in the Ariya Sīlakkhandha Formulae (e.g. at MN 27), it said of a bhikkhu: 'dinn·ādāyī dinna·pāṭikaṅkhī' (he takes [only] what is given, expecting [only] what is given). The same formulae (e.g. also at MN 27) explain further some fundamental principles of a bhikkhu's livelihood, e.g. refusing money, women and slaves, animals, properties, bribery, trickery etc. They further say (here) that a bhikkhu, wherever he goes needs only two things, and should keep to them only.

♦ A list of five improper ways of gaining material support from donors is given at AN 5.83. It looks quite important because it seriously questions the behavior of many monks nowadays who are quite self-righteous. Their meaning has remained curiously quite fuzzy, and there is oddly no mention of them in the Vinaya, but there is a definition of these terms in the Vibhanga:

1. kuhanā: (PTSD [probably inaccurate]:) deceit, hypocrisy, fraud - (B.Bodhi:) scheming, duplicity - (Vibhanga:) with an evil mind attached to gain and honours, for the sake of acquisitions, indicating what is to be done for establishing things, e.g. great lodgings etc.

2. lapanā: (PTSD:) muttering, prattling (for begging) - (B.Bodhi:) talking - (Than.B:) persuading - (Vibhanga:) with an evil mind attached to gain and honours, talking, prattling, flattering in various ways etc.

3. nemittikatā: (PTSD:) prognostication, inquisitiveness, insinuation - (B.Bodhi:) hinting - (Vibhanga:) with an evil mind attached to gain and honours, making signs [and perhaps:] communicating by facial expressions etc.

4. nippesikatā: (PTSD:) jugglery, trickery - (B.Bodhi:) belittling - (Vibhanga:) with an evil mind attached to gain and honours, abusing, despising, blaming, mocking etc.

5. lābhena lābhaṃ nijigiṃsitā: (PTSD:) coveting acquisitions upon acquisitions - (B.Bodhi:) pursuing gain with gain - (Vibhanga:) with an evil mind attached to gain and honours, accumulating acquisitions and looking for more material objects.

♦ Besides mentioning also the above five items, a long list of wrong livelihoods for bhikkhus is given in the suttas of the Sīlakkhandha Vagga of DN, e.g. at DN 11. They deal essentially with fortune telling, witchcraft, divination, acting as a priest (e.g. performing weddings etc.).

2) For householders:

♦ Five types of unskilful trades to be avoided are listed at AN 5.177.

♦ Acting as a comic (at SN 42.2) and being a warrior (at SN 42.3) are clearly indicated as morally dangerous livelihoods.



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ajjhatta(ṃ): [adhi+atta]

1) (adv:) internally, inwardly.

2) (adj:) interior, inner, personal, connected with the self, in contrast to anything outside (bāhira/bahiddhā), objective or impersonal.

♦ Thus, ajjhatta applies chiefly to mental phenomena and whatever happens in the body.



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akālika: [a+kāla+ika]

1) without delay, immediate, immediately effective, possessed of immediate result

2) unconditioned by time or season.

Akālika is the second standard epithet of the Dhamma, which is given in the dhamm·ānussati formula. A definition of the word is given in the Cūḷa Niddesa (KN, Nc 108), where it is likened to the expression 'diṭṭh·eva dhamme', and explained by the fact that whoever practices the ariya aṭṭhaṅgika magga enjoys its fruits now, in the visible world, and does not have to wait to be hereafter, in another world, for that.



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ākāsānañcāyatana: [ākāsānañca+āyatana]

the sphere of infinitude of space. Attained as the 5th jhāna. See the standard description here. There is not much said about it in the suttas, it is apparently something to be experienced rather than talked about.



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ākiñcaññāyatana: [ākiñcañña+āyatana]

the sphere of nothingness. Attained as the 7th jhāna. See the standard description here. There is not much said about it in the suttas, it is apparently something to be experienced rather than talked about.



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akusala: [a+kusala]

disadvantageous, unskilful, blameworthy, demeritorious, unskilful, resulting in suffering, troublesome. At MN 61, we find the following synonyms: '[yo] atta·byābādhāya·pi saṃvatteyya, para·byābādhāya·pi saṃvatteyya, ubhaya·byābādhāya·pi saṃvatteyya' ([what] would lead to one's own harm, lead to the harm of others, lead to the harm of both), dukkh·udraya (having suffering as consequence), dukkha·vipāka (resulting in suffering). Another three synonyms are given at AN 3.66: sāvajja, viññu·garahita (censured by the wise), '[yo] ahitāya dukkhāya saṃvattati' ([what] leads to adversity and suffering). At MN 88, Ānanda further gives the following synonym: sabyāpajjha. The word akusala is otherwise defined in terms of the ten akusala·kamma·pathas (e.g. at AN 10.180), which are fully explained at AN 10.176. Akusala is also sometimes defined in terms of the eight or tenfold micchā·paṭipadā (e.g. at AN 10.136).

♦ It is stated indirectly at MN 114 that all types of conducts are either kusala or akusala, which would mean there is no "no man's land" between the two opposites. (The common sense, of course, dictates that there would be nonetheless a gradation in intensity).

♦ In the Ekaka Nipāta, a number of suttas underline dhammas that cause akusala dhammas to arise: micchā·diṭṭhi (AN 1.306), pamāda (AN 1.58), laziness (kosajja - AN 1.60), mahicchatā (AN 1.62), asantuṭṭh·itā (AN 1.64), a·yoniso manasi·kāra (AN 1.66), a·sampajañña (AN 1.68), and evil friendship (pāpa·mittatā - AN 1.70).

♦ Naturally, the opposite dhammas cause the removal of akusala dhammas: sammā·diṭṭhi (AN 1.307), appamāda (AN 1.59), vīriyārambha (AN 1.61), appicchatā (AN 1.63), santuṭṭh·itā (AN 1.65), yoniso manasi·kāra (AN 1.67), sampajañña (AN 1.69), and kalyāṇa·mittatā (AN 1.71).

♦ At AN 5.52, the five nīvaraṇas are called 'akusala·rāsī' (accumulations of demerit).

♦ These nīvaraṇas are overcome by one who attains the first jhāna, and who thereby enjoys freedom from akusala dhammas (temporarily, of course), as made clear by the condition for such an attainment stated in the corresponding standard formula: 'vivicca akusalehi dhammehi'.



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akusalakammapatha: [akusala+kamma+patha]

unskilful paths of action, disadvantageous courses of action. There are ten akusala·kamma·pathas, of three types: bodily, verbal or mental. They are described in these terms at AN 10.176.

The three bodily akusala·kamma·pathas, frequently referred to as (a part of) kāya·duccarita, correspond to the actions to be abstained from for the practice of sammā·kammanta:

1. pāṇātipāta
2. adinnādāna
3. kāmesu·micchā·cāra

The four verbal akusala·kamma·pathas, frequently referred to as (a part of) vacī·duccarita, correspond to the actions to be abstained from for the practice of sammā·vācā:

4. musā·vāda
5. pisuṇa·vācā
6. pharusa·vāca
7. samphappalāpa

The three mental akusala·kamma·pathas, frequently referred to as (a part of) mano·duccarita, correspond to the actions to be abstained from for the practice of sammā·saṅkappa (since nekkhamma consists chiefly in abandoning abhijjha):

8. abhijjha
9. byāpāda
10. micchā·diṭṭhi

♦ The practice of the ten akusala·kamma·pathas is generally described as leading either to niraya (e.g. AN 10.221), tiracchāna·yoni or pettivisaya, but it is made clear at MN 136 that it is only a general direction and that although the results are bound to come, there is nonetheless no absolute determinism regarding the type of future birth, except perhaps in the case of the five deeds which are described at AN 5.129 as āpāyikā nerayikā parikuppā atekicchā (incurable agitations that lead to a plane of misery or to hell), a.k.a. ānantariya kamma. On the flipside, see also the case of Saraṇāni at SN 55.24.

♦ It is said of one who practices the ten akusala·kamma·pathas that he creeps (saṃsappati) and is crooked (jimha) in body, speech and mind, and that he can expect a crooked destination and rebirth (AN 10.216); that he should not be associated with (na bhajitabbo - AN 10.200), not attended on (na payirupāsitabbo - AN 10.201); that he is an asappurisa (AN 10.204).



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akusalamūla: [akusala+mūla]

roots of what is disadvantageous, sources of the unskilful. The term is defined by Sāriputta at MN 9 as consisting of lobha, dosa, and moha. This is a relatively rare word that appears only in five suttas.



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alobha: [a+lobha]

absence of craving. At AN 3.67, alobha is explained as having an·abhijjhā for synonym.

Alobha is one of the three kusala·mūlas.

♦ According to AN 3.112, any kamma caused by alobha is anavajja and has sukha·vipāka (pleasant results).

♦ According to AN 6.39, alobha does not arise from lobha, but rather from alobha itself (na alobhā lobho samudeti; atha kho alobhā alobhova samudeti). And vice versa.



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āloka: light.

Āloka is often used as a figure for enlightenment, namely for ñāṇa, paññā, vijjā and cakkhu, as in the Dhamma·cakka·ppavattana Sutta. It is also used as a figure for the four ariya·saccas as at SN 56.38. At AN 4.143, there is mention of the light of discernment (paññ·āloka), as being greater than that of the sun, the moon or the fire.

Āloka also refers to a light within the mind, as made clear at SN 51.20, where it is juxtaposed with 'sappabhāsaṃ cittaṃ (luminous mind). Āloka·saññā is also juxtaposed with divā·saññā (perception of day/daytime) in the following formula that describes the development of the luminous mind: 'bhikkhuno ālokasaññā suggahitā hoti divāsaññā svādhiṭṭhitā' (the perception of light is well grasped by a bhikkhu; the perception of day is well resolved upon).

♦ Attending to the perception of this mental light is said at AN 4.41 and AN 6.29 to lead to ñāṇa·dassana.

♦ Giving it attention is also mentioned as a way to get rid of thīna·middhā in the corresponding standard formula and at AN 7.61.



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amata: the Deathless, ambrosia, a state in which there is no more arising nor passing away of phenomena, no birth and no death. It is a figure for Nibbāna.



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amoha: [a+moha]

absence of delusion. At AN 3.67, amoha is explained as having vijjā for synonym. An elaborate definition is given in the Vibhanga: 'Tattha katamo amoho? Yā paññā pajānanā vicayo pavicayo dhammavicayo sallakkhaṇā upalakkhaṇā paccupalakkhaṇā paṇḍiccaṃ kosallaṃ nepuññaṃ vebhabyā cintā upaparikkhā bhūrī medhā pariṇāyikā vipassanā sampajaññaṃ patodo paññā paññindriyaṃ paññābalaṃ paññāsatthaṃ paññāpāsādo paññāāloko paññāobhāso paññāpajjoto paññāratanaṃ amoho dhammavicayo sammādiṭṭhi: ayaṃ vuccati “amoho”.' [dictionary].

Amoha is one of the three kusala·mūlas.

♦ According to AN 3.112, any kamma caused by amoha is anavajja and has sukha·vipāka (pleasant results).

♦ According to AN 6.39, amoha does not arise from moha, but rather from amoha itself (na amohā moho samudeti; atha kho amohā amohova samudeti). And vice versa.



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anāgāmī: [an+āgāmī] lit: 'one who does not return' - designates an individual having reached the third of the four maggas leading to Nibbāna. He is so called because after death, he cannot 'return to this world', i.e. be reborn as a human being or a low class deva, but only as a special type of Brahmā. He will reach arahatta and eventually Parinibbāna during that one and only subsequent life. An anāgāmī is generally described as an individual having abandoned the five saṃyojanas connected to what is inferior (orambhāgiya) that fetter him to the round of existence.



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anāgāmita: [an+āgāmī+ta] state of an anāgāmī. This stage is described as being reachable by anyone who practices very seriously, specially in the case where one is not able to become an arahant. See for example DN 22.



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anagāriya: homelessness. A characteristic of samaṇas.

♦ The word appears nearly always in the expression agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbajati ('He goes forth from the home life into homelessness').

♦ The way in which a follower of the Buddha's teaching adopts anagāriya is described in a standard formula.



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ānāpāna: breath, respiration. Always regarded as a tool for practicing the Dhamma and mentioned in the context of ānāpānassati.



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ānāpānassati: [ānāpāna+sati]

breath awareness, (lit:) mindfulness of in and out breathing.

Ānāpānassati has its own entire saṃyutta (SN 54).

The standard description of the practice of ānāpānassati is given for example in the Mahārāhulovāda Sutta:


MN 62

“ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi. ānāpānassati hi te, rāhula, bhāvitā bahulīkatā mahapphalā hoti mahānisaṃsā. kathaṃ bhāvitā ca, rāhula, ānāpānassati, kathaṃ bahulīkatā mahapphalā hoti mahānisaṃsā ? idha, rāhula,..

Develop mindfulness of breathing, Rahula. When mindfulness of breathing is developed and cultivated it’s very fruitful and beneficial. And how is mindfulness of breathing developed and cultivated to be very fruitful and beneficial? It’s when..

Bhikkhu arañña·gato

A bhikkhu, having gone to the forest
rukkha·mūla·gato

or having gone at the root of a tree
suññ·āgāra·gato

or having gone to an empty room,
nisīdati pallaṅkaṃ ābhujitvā

sits down folding the legs crosswise,
ujuṃ kāyaṃ paṇidhāya

setting kāya upright,
parimukhaṃ satiṃ upaṭṭhapetvā.

and setting sati parimukhaṃ.
So sato·va assasati, sato·va passasati.

Thus sato he breathes in, thus sato he breathes out.
Dīghaṃ assasanto 'dīghaṃ assasāmī' ti pajānāti.

Breathing in long he understands: 'I am breathing in long'.
Dīghaṃ passasanto 'dīghaṃ passasāmī' ti pajānāti.

Breathing out long he understands: 'I am breathing out long'.
Rassaṃ assasanto 'rassaṃ assasāmī' ti pajānāti.

Breathing in short he understands: 'I am breathing in short'.
Rassaṃ passasanto 'rassaṃ passasāmī' ti pajānāti.

Breathing out short he understands: 'I am breathing out short'.
'Sabba·kāya·paṭisaṃvedī assasissāmī' ti sikkhati.

He trains himself: 'feeling the whole kāya, I will breathe in'.
'Sabba·kāya·paṭisaṃvedī passasissāmī' ti sikkhati.

He trains himself: 'feeling the whole kāya, I will breathe out'.
'Passambhayaṃ kāya·saṅkhāraṃ assasissāmī' ti sikkhati.

He trains himself: 'calming down the kāya·saṅkhāras, I will breathe in'.
'Passambhayaṃ kāya·saṅkhāraṃ passasissāmī' ti sikkhati.

He trains himself: 'calming down the kāya·saṅkhāras, I will breathe out'.
'Pīti·paṭisaṃvedī assasissāmī' ti sikkhati.

He trains himself: 'experiencing pīti, I will breathe in'.
'Pīti·paṭisaṃvedī passasissāmī' ti sikkhati.

He trains himself: 'experiencing pīti, I will breathe out'.
'Sukha·paṭisaṃvedī assasissāmī' ti sikkhati.

He trains himself: 'experiencing sukha, I will breathe in'.
'Sukha·paṭisaṃvedī passasissāmī' ti sikkhati.

He trains himself: 'experiencing sukha, I will breathe out'.


MN 62 (continued)

'Citta-saṅkhāra-paṭisaṃvedī assasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Citta-saṅkhāra-paṭisaṃvedī passasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Passambhayaṃ citta-saṅkhāraṃ assasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Passambhayaṃ citta-saṅkhāraṃ passasissāmī' ti sikkhati.

He trains himself: 'perceiving the mental formation, I will breathe in'. He trains himself: 'perceiving the mental formation, I will breathe out'. He trains himself: 'calming down the mental formation, I will breathe in'. He trains himself: 'calming down the mental formation, I will breathe out'.

'Citta-paṭisaṃvedī assasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Citta-paṭisaṃvedī passasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Abhippamodayaṃ cittaṃ assasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Abhippamodayaṃ cittaṃ passasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Samādahaṃ cittaṃ assasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Samādahaṃ cittaṃ passasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Vimocayaṃ cittaṃ assasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Vimocayaṃ cittaṃ passasissāmī' ti sikkhati.

He trains himself: 'perceiving the mind, I will breathe in'. He trains himself: 'perceiving the mind, I will breathe out'. He trains himself: 'gladdening the mind, I will breathe in'. He trains himself: 'gladdening the mind, I will breathe out'. He trains himself: 'concentrating the mind, I will breathe in'. He trains himself: 'concentrating the mind, I will breathe out'. He trains himself: 'releasing the mind, I will breathe in'. He trains himself: 'releasing the mind, I will breathe out'.

'Anicc·ānupassī assasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Anicc·ānupassī passasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Virāg·ānupassī assasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Virāg·ānupassī passasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Nirodh·ānupassī assasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Nirodh·ānupassī passasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Paṭinissagg·ānupassī assasissāmī' ti sikkhati. 'Paṭinissagg·ānupassī passasissāmī' ti sikkhati.

He trains himself: 'contemplating impermanence, I will breathe in'. He trains himself: 'contemplating impermanence, I will breathe out'. He trains himself: 'contemplating fading away, I will breathe in'. He trains himself: 'contemplating fading away, I will breathe out'. He trains himself: 'contemplating cessation, I will breathe in'. He trains himself: 'contemplating cessation, I will breathe out'. He trains himself: 'contemplating relinquishment, I will breathe in'. He trains himself: 'contemplating relinquishment, I will breathe out'.

“evaṃ bhāvitā kho, rāhula, ānāpānassati, evaṃ bahulīkatā mahapphalā hoti mahānisaṃsā. evaṃ bhāvitāya, rāhula, ānāpānassatiyā, evaṃ bahulīkatāya yepi te carimakā assāsā tepi viditāva nirujjhanti no aviditā”ti.

Mindfulness of breathing, when developed and cultivated in this way, is very fruitful and beneficial. When mindfulness of breathing is developed and cultivated in this way, even when the final breaths in and out cease, they are known, not unknown.”


This last statement is worthy of note: 'When mindfulness of breathing is developed and cultivated in this way, even when the final breaths [before death] in and out cease, they are known, not unknown'.

♦ According to the Padīpopama Sutta and the Icchānaṅgala Sutta, the Buddha himself had a predilection for ānāpānassati:


SN 54.8

evaṃ bhāvito kho, bhikkhave, ānāpānassatisamādhi evaṃ bahulīkato mahapphalo hoti mahānisaṃso. ahampi sudaṃ, bhikkhave, pubbeva sambodhā anabhisambuddho bodhisattova samāno iminā vihārena bahulaṃ viharāmi. tassa mayhaṃ, bhikkhave, iminā vihārena bahulaṃ viharato neva kāyo kilamati na cakkhūni; anupādāya ca me āsavehi cittaṃ vimucci.

concentration based on breath awareness, when developed and cultivated, is very fruitful and beneficial. Before my awakening, when I was still unawakened but an awakened-to-be, I too usually practiced this kind of meditation. And while I was usually practicing this kind of meditation neither my body nor my eyes became fatigued. And my mind was freed from defilements by not grasping.


SN 54.11

ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā icchānaṅgale viharati icchānaṅgalavanasaṇḍe. tatra kho bhagavā bhikkhū āmantesi — “icchāmahaṃ, bhikkhave, temāsaṃ paṭisallīyituṃ. nāmhi kenaci upasaṅkamitabbo, aññatra ekena piṇḍapātanīhārakenā”ti. “evaṃ, bhante”ti kho te bhikkhū bhagavato paṭissutvā nāssudha koci bhagavantaṃ upasaṅkamati, aññatra ekena piṇḍapātanīhārakena.

At one time the Buddha was staying in a forest near Icchānaṅgala. There he addressed the bhikkhus: “Bhikkhus, I wish to go on retreat for three months. No-one should approach me, except for the one who brings my alms-food.” “Yes, sir,” replied those bhikkhus. And no-one approached him, except for the one who brought the alms-food.

atha kho bhagavā tassa temāsassa accayena paṭisallānā vuṭṭhito bhikkhū āmantesi — “sace kho, bhikkhave, aññatitthiyā paribbājakā evaṃ puccheyyuṃ — ‘katamenāvuso, vihārena samaṇo gotamo vassāvāsaṃ bahulaṃ vihāsī’ti, evaṃ puṭṭhā tumhe, bhikkhave, tesaṃ aññatitthiyānaṃ paribbājakānaṃ evaṃ byākareyyātha — ‘ānāpānassatisamādhinā kho, āvuso, bhagavā vassāvāsaṃ bahulaṃ vihāsī’ti.

Then after three months had passed, the Buddha came out of retreat and addressed the bhikkhus: “Bhikkhus, if wanderers who follow another path were to ask you: ‘Reverends, what was the ascetic Gotama’s usual meditation during the rainy season residence?’ You should answer them like this. ‘Reverends, the ascetic Gotama’s usual meditation during the rainy season residence was concentration based on breath awareness.’


♦ The Buddha has high praise for a bhikkhu who practices ānāpānassati:


AN 1.479

“accharāsaṅghātamattampi ce, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ānāpānassatiṃ bhāveti bhāveti, ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave — ‘bhikkhu arittajjhāno viharati, satthusāsanakaro ovādapatikaro, amoghaṃ raṭṭhapiṇḍaṃ bhuñjati’. ko pana vādo ye naṃ bahulīkarontī”ti!

“If, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu develops breath awareness, even as long as a finger snap, they are called a bhikkhu who does not lack concentration, who follows the Teacher’s instructions, who responds to advice, and who does not eat the country’s alms in vain. How much more so those who practice it abundantly!”


♦ As stated in the Mahākappina Sutta, ānāpānassati produces stability of the body and the mind:


SN 54.7

tena kho pana samayena āyasmā mahākappino bhagavato avidūre nisinno hoti pallaṅkaṃ ābhujitvā ujuṃ kāyaṃ paṇidhāya parimukhaṃ satiṃ upaṭṭhapetvā. addasā kho bhagavā āyasmantaṃ mahākappinaṃ avidūre nisinnaṃ pallaṅkaṃ ābhujitvā ujuṃ kāyaṃ paṇidhāya parimukhaṃ satiṃ upaṭṭhapetvā. disvāna bhikkhū āmantesi:

Now, at that time Venerable Mahākappina was sitting not far from the Buddha crosslegged, with his body straight, and mindfulness established between the mouth and the nostrils. The Buddha saw him crosslegged, with his body straight, and mindfulness established between the mouth and the nostrils, and addressed the bhikkhus:

“passatha no tumhe, bhikkhave, etassa bhikkhuno kāyassa iñjitattaṃ vā phanditattaṃ vā”ti?

“Bhikkhus, do you see any motion or trembling in that bhikkhu’s body?”

“yadāpi mayaṃ, bhante, taṃ āyasmantaṃ passāma saṅghamajjhe vā nisinnaṃ ekaṃ vā raho nisinnaṃ, tadāpi mayaṃ tassa āyasmato na passāma kāyassa iñjitattaṃ vā phanditattaṃ vā”ti.

“Sir, whenever we see that bhikkhu meditating—whether in the middle of the Community or alone in private—we never see any motion or trembling in his body.”

...

...

“ānāpānassatisamādhissa, bhikkhave, bhāvitattā bahulīkatattā neva kāyassa iñjitattaṃ vā hoti phanditattaṃ vā, na cittassa iñjitattaṃ vā hoti phanditattaṃ vā.

Bhikkhus, when concentration through breath awareness has been developed and cultivated, there’s no motion or trembling of the body, and there’s no motion or trembling of the mind. trouble or difficulty.


♦ The practice of ānāpānassati is recommended as a remede for mental upset:


AN 6.115

cetaso vikkhepassa pahānāya ānāpānassati bhāvetabbā

to abandon mental upset, breath awareness should be practiced


It is also recommended to 'cut off' thoughts (vitakk·upacchedāya) and remove distressing external thought-patterns (bāhirā vitakkāsayā vighāta·pakkhikā)


AN 9.1

ānāpānassati bhāvetabbā vitakkupacchedāya

breath awareness should be practiced to cut off thoughts


It 85

ānāpānassatiyā ajjhattaṃ parimukhaṃ sūpaṭṭhititāya ye bāhirā vitakkāsayā vighātapakkhikā, te na honti

When breath awareness is well establish internally between the mouth and the nostrils, there are no distressing external thoughts


♦ The Ānāpānassati Sutta explains how the practice of ānāpānassati fulfills the practice of the four satipaṭṭhānas:


MN 118

“kathaṃ bhāvitā ca, bhikkhave, ānāpānassati kathaṃ bahulīkatā cattāro satipaṭṭhāne paripūreti? yasmiṃ samaye, bhikkhave, bhikkhu dīghaṃ vā assasanto ‘dīghaṃ assasāmī’ti pajānāti, dīghaṃ vā passasanto ‘dīghaṃ passasāmī’ti pajānāti; rassaṃ vā assasanto ‘rassaṃ assasāmī’ti pajānāti, rassaṃ vā passasanto ‘rassaṃ passasāmī’ti pajānāti; ‘sabbakāyapaṭisaṃvedī assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘sabbakāyapaṭisaṃvedī passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; ‘passambhayaṃ kāyasaṅkhāraṃ assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘passambhayaṃ kāyasaṅkhāraṃ passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; kāye kāyānupassī, bhikkhave, tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā vineyya loke abhijjhādomanassaṃ. kāyesu kāyaññatarāhaṃ, bhikkhave, evaṃ vadāmi yadidaṃ — assāsapassāsā. tasmātiha, bhikkhave, kāye kāyānupassī tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā vineyya loke abhijjhādomanassaṃ.

And how is mindfulness of breathing developed and cultivated so as to fulfill the four kinds of mindfulness meditation? Whenever a bhikkhu knows that they breathe heavily, or lightly, or experiencing the whole body, or stilling the body’s motion— at that time they’re meditating by observing an aspect of the body—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of desire and aversion for the world. For I say that the inbreaths and out-breaths are an aspect of the body. That’s why at that time a bhikkhu is meditating by observing an aspect of the body—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of desire and aversion for the world.

“yasmiṃ samaye, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ‘pītipaṭisaṃvedī assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘pītipaṭisaṃvedī passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; ‘sukhapaṭisaṃvedī assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘sukhapaṭisaṃvedī passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; ‘cittasaṅkhārapaṭisaṃvedī assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘cittasaṅkhārapaṭisaṃvedī passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; ‘passambhayaṃ cittasaṅkhāraṃ assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘passambhayaṃ cittasaṅkhāraṃ passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; vedanāsu vedanānupassī, bhikkhave, tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā vineyya loke abhijjhādomanassaṃ. vedanāsu vedanāññatarāhaṃ, bhikkhave, evaṃ vadāmi yadidaṃ — assāsapassāsānaṃ sādhukaṃ manasikāraṃ. tasmātiha, bhikkhave, vedanāsu vedanānupassī tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā vineyya loke abhijjhādomanassaṃ.

Whenever a bhikkhu practices breathing while experiencing rapture, or experiencing bliss, or experiencing these emotions, or stilling these emotions— at that time they meditate observing an aspect of feelings—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of desire and aversion for the world. For I say that close attention to the in-breaths and out-breaths is an aspect of feelings. That’s why at that time a bhikkhu is meditating by observing an aspect of feelings—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of desire and aversion for the world.

“yasmiṃ samaye, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ‘cittapaṭisaṃvedī assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘cittapaṭisaṃvedī passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; ‘abhippamodayaṃ cittaṃ assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘abhippamodayaṃ cittaṃ passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; ‘samādahaṃ cittaṃ assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘samādahaṃ cittaṃ passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; ‘vimocayaṃ cittaṃ assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘vimocayaṃ cittaṃ passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; citte cittānupassī, bhikkhave, tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā vineyya loke abhijjhādomanassaṃ. nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, muṭṭhassatissa asampajānassa ānāpānassatiṃ vadāmi. tasmātiha, bhikkhave, citte cittānupassī tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā vineyya loke abhijjhādomanassaṃ.

Whenever a bhikkhu practices breathing while experiencing the mind, or gladdening the mind, or immersing the mind in samādhi, or freeing the mind— at that time they meditate observing an aspect of the mind—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of desire and aversion for the world. There is no development of mindfulness of breathing for someone who is unmindful and lacks awareness, I say. That’s why at that time a bhikkhu is meditating by observing an aspect of the mind—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of desire and aversion for the world.

“yasmiṃ samaye, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ‘aniccānupassī assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘aniccānupassī passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; ‘virāgānupassī assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘virāgānupassī passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; ‘nirodhānupassī assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘nirodhānupassī passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; ‘paṭinissaggānupassī assasissāmī’ti sikkhati, ‘paṭinissaggānupassī passasissāmī’ti sikkhati; dhammesu dhammānupassī, bhikkhave, tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā vineyya loke abhijjhādomanassaṃ. so yaṃ taṃ abhijjhādomanassānaṃ pahānaṃ taṃ paññāya disvā sādhukaṃ ajjhupekkhitā hoti. tasmātiha, bhikkhave, dhammesu dhammānupassī tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā vineyya loke abhijjhādomanassaṃ.

Whenever a bhikkhu practices breathing while observing impermanence, or observing fading away, or observing cessation, or observing letting go— at that time they meditate observing an aspect of principles—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of desire and aversion for the world. Having seen with wisdom the giving up of desire and aversion, they watch over closely with equanimity. That’s why at that time a bhikkhu is meditating by observing an aspect of principles—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of desire and aversion for the world.

“evaṃ bhāvitā kho, bhikkhave, ānāpānassati evaṃ bahulīkatā cattāro satipaṭṭhāne paripūreti.

That’s how mindfulness of breathing, when developed and cultivated, fulfills the four kinds of mindfulness meditation.


♦ Many other benefits of practicing ānāpānassati are given in the suttas. It leads to great comfort (mahato phāsuvihārāya saṃvattati, SN 46.71), to freedom from fatigue for the body and the eyes and a mind freed from grasping without defilements (neva me kāyo kilameyya na cakkhūni, anupādāya ca me āsavehi cittaṃ vimucceyyā’ti, SN 54.8), to giving up memories and thoughts of the lay life (ye me gehasitā sarasaṅkappā te pahīyeyyu’ti, SN 54.8), to success in the various repulsiveness practices (‘appaṭikūle paṭikūlasaññī vihareyyan’ti... ‘appaṭikūlañca paṭikūlañca tadubhayaṃ abhinivajjetvā upekkhako vihareyyaṃ sato sampajāno’ti, SN 54.8), to attaining all the eight jhānas (SN 54.8).


SN 54.8

“evaṃ bhāvite kho, bhikkhave, ānāpānassatisamādhimhi evaṃ bahulīkate, sukhaṃ ce vedanaṃ vedayati, sā ‘aniccā’ti pajānāti, ‘anajjhositā’ti pajānāti, ‘anabhinanditā’ti pajānāti; dukkhaṃ ce vedanaṃ vedayati, ‘sā aniccā’ti pajānāti, ‘anajjhositā’ti pajānāti, ‘anabhinanditā’ti pajānāti; adukkhamasukhaṃ ce vedanaṃ vedayati, ‘sā aniccā’ti pajānāti, ‘anajjhositā’ti pajānāti, ‘anabhinanditā’ti pajānāti”.

When mindfulness of breathing has been developed and cultivated in this way, if they feel a pleasant feeling, they understand that it’s impermanent, that they’re not attached to it, and that they don’t delight in it. If they feel a painful feeling, they understand that it’s impermanent, that they’re not attached to it, and that they don’t delight in it. If they feel a neutral feeling, they understand that it’s impermanent, that they’re not attached to it, and that they don’t delight in it.

“sukhaṃ ce vedanaṃ vedayati, visaṃyutto naṃ vedayati; dukkhaṃ ce vedanaṃ vedayati, visaṃyutto naṃ vedayati; adukkhamasukhaṃ ce vedanaṃ vedayati, visaṃyutto naṃ vedayati.

If they feel a pleasant feeling, they feel it detached. If they feel a painful feeling, they feel it detached. If they feel a neutral feeling, they feel it detached.

...

...

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, telañca paṭicca, vaṭṭiñca paṭicca telappadīpo jhāyeyya, tasseva telassa ca vaṭṭiyā ca pariyādānā anāhāro nibbāyeyya; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu kāyapariyantikaṃ vedanaṃ vedayamāno ‘kāyapariyantikaṃ vedanaṃ vedayāmī’ti pajānāti, jīvitapariyantikaṃ vedanaṃ vedayamāno ‘jīvitapariyantikaṃ vedanaṃ vedayāmī’ti pajānāti, ‘kāyassa bhedā uddhaṃ jīvitapariyādānā idheva sabbavedayitāni anabhinanditāni sītībhavissantī’ti pajānātī”ti.

Suppose an oil lamp depended on oil and a wick to burn. As the oil and the wick are used up, it would be extinguished due to lack of fuel. In the same way, feeling the end of the body approaching, they understand: ‘I feel the end of the body approaching.’ Feeling the end of life approaching, they understand: ‘I feel the end of life approaching.’ They understand: ‘When my body breaks up and my life has come to an end, everything that’s felt, since I no longer delight in it, will become cool right here.’”


Practicing ānāpānassati can also lead to either (an arahant's) knowledge, or anāgāmitā (diṭṭheva dhamme aññā, sati vā upādisese anāgāmitā”ti, SN 54.4), or alternatively, at SN 54.5, to final knowledge (paṭikacca aññaṃ) at the time of death (maraṇakāle), or to becoming an attainer of Nibbāna in the interval [between lives] (antarāparinibbāyī), or to becoming an attainer of Nibbāna upon landing [in a new existence] (upahaccaparinibbāyī), or to becoming an attainer of Nibbāna without exertion (asaṅkhāraparinibbāyī), or to becoming an attainer of Nibbāna with exertion (sasaṅkhāraparinibbāyī), or to be bound upstream, heading towards the Akaniṭṭha realm (uddhaṃsoto hoti akaniṭṭhagāmī).

Practicing ānāpānassati is also said to lead to fully attaining virāga, nirodha, upasama, abhiññā, sambodhi and nibbāna (ekantanibbidāya virāgāya nirodhāya upasamāya abhiññāya sambodhāya nibbānāya saṃvattati, AN 1.297).

♦ Concentration based on breath awareness (ānāpānassati·samādhi) is called at SN 54.12 “the dwelling of a noble one” (ariya·vihāro), “the dwelling of (a) Brahmā” (brahma·vihāro), “the dwelling of the Tathāgata” (tathāgata·vihāro).


SN 54.9

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, gimhānaṃ pacchime māse ūhataṃ rajojallaṃ, tamenaṃ mahāakālamegho ṭhānaso antaradhāpeti vūpasameti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, ānāpānassatisamādhi bhāvito bahulīkato santo ceva paṇīto ca asecanako ca sukho ca vihāro uppannuppanne ca pāpake akusale dhamme ṭhānaso antaradhāpeti vūpasameti.

Just as, bhikkhus, in the last month of summer, when the dust and dirt is stirred up, a large sudden storm disperses and settles it on the spot, in the same way, when this concentration based on breath awareness is developed and cultivated it’s peaceful and sublime, a deliciously pleasant meditation. And it disperses and settles unskillful qualities on the spot whenever they arise.


For trainees (sekha), it leads to the destruction of āsavas. For arahant s, it procures a pleasant abiding, and sati·sampajañña.


SN 54.12

“ye te, bhikkhave, bhikkhū sekhā appattamānasā anuttaraṃ yogakkhemaṃ patthayamānā viharanti, tesaṃ ānāpānassatisamādhi bhāvito bahulīkato āsavānaṃ khayāya saṃvattati.

For those bhikkhus who are trainees—who haven’t achieved their heart’s desire, but live aspiring for the supreme sanctuary—the development and cultivation of concentration due to mindfulness of breathing leads to the ending of defilements.

“ye ca kho te, bhikkhave, bhikkhū arahanto khīṇāsavā vusitavanto katakaraṇīyā ohitabhārā anuppattasadatthā parikkhīṇabhavasaṃyojanā sammadaññā vimuttā, tesaṃ ānāpānassatisamādhi bhāvito bahulīkato diṭṭheva dhamme sukhavihārāya ceva saṃvattati satisampajaññāya ca.

For those bhikkhus who are perfected—who have ended the defilements, completed the spiritual journey, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, achieved their own goal, utterly ended the fetters of rebirth, and are rightly freed through enlightenment—the development and cultivation of concentration based on breath awareness leads to blissful abiding in the present life, and to mindfulness and thorough understanding.


Practicing ānāpānassati·samādhi leads to giving up the fetters (saṃyojanappahānāya saṃvattati, SN 54.17), uprooting the underlying tendencies (anusayasamugghātāya, 54.18), full understanding of the course (addhānapariññāya, 54.19), and the ending of defilements (āsavānaṃ khayāya, 54.20).


AN 5.96

“pañcahi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bhikkhu ānāpānassatiṃ āsevanto nacirasseva akuppaṃ paṭivijjhati. katamehi pañcahi? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu appaṭṭho hoti appakicco subharo susantoso jīvitaparikkhāresu; appāhāro hoti anodarikattaṃ anuyutto; appamiddho hoti jāgariyaṃ anuyutto; bahussuto hoti sutadharo sutasannicayo, ye te dhammā ādikalyāṇā majjhekalyāṇā pariyosānakalyāṇā sātthaṃ sabyañjanaṃ kevalaparipuṇṇaṃ parisuddhaṃ brahmacariyaṃ abhivadanti, tathārūpāssa dhammā bahussutā honti dhātā vacasā paricitā manasānupekkhitā diṭṭhiyā suppaṭividdhā; yathāvimuttaṃ cittaṃ paccavekkhati.

“Mendicants, a bhikkhu cultivating mindfulness of breathing who has five things will soon penetrate the unshakable. What five? It’s when a bhikkhu has few requirements and duties, and is easily looked after and contented with life’s necessities. They eat little, not devoted to filling their stomach. They are rarely drowsy, and are dedicated to wakefulness. They’re very learned, remembering and keeping what they’ve learned. These teachings are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased, describing a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. They are very learned in such teachings, remembering them, reinforcing them by recitation, mentally scrutinizing them, and comprehending them theoretically. They review the extent of their mind’s freedom.


AN 5.97

(idem)

(idem)

appamiddho hoti jāgariyaṃ anuyutto; yāyaṃ kathā ābhisallekhikā cetovivaraṇasappāyā, seyyathidaṃ — appicchakathā santuṭṭhikathā pavivekakathā asaṃsaggakathā vīriyārambhakathā sīlakathā samādhikathā paññākathā vimuttikathā vimuttiñāṇadassanakathā, evarūpiyā kathāya nikāmalābhī hoti akicchalābhī akasiralābhī; yathāvimuttaṃ cittaṃ paccavekkhati.

They get to take part in talk about self-effacement that helps open the heart, when they want, without trouble or difficulty. That is, talk about fewness of wishes, contentment, seclusion, keeping your distance, arousing energy, ethics, concentration, wisdom, freedom, and the knowledge and vision of freedom. They review the extent of their mind’s freedom.


AN 5.98

(idem)

(idem)

āraññako hoti pantasenāsano; yathāvimuttaṃ cittaṃ paccavekkhati.

They live in the wilderness, in remote lodgings. They review the extent of their mind’s freedom.



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anattā: [an+attā] no-self, egolessness, soullessness, impersonality, absence of identity.

♦ It is the third of the ti·lakkhaṇa, a universal fact whose understanding is declared at SN 22.42 to be a way to exert dhamm·ānudhamma·ppaṭipatti.

♦ The characteristic of anattā applies to all phenomena, as declared in a famous sentence which occurs in a handful of suttas: 'sabbe dhammā anattā' (all phenomena are not-self).

♦ But as explained at SN 23.17, the characteristic of anattā is to be understood chiefly at the level of the five upādāna·kkhandhas, although it is frequent to find treatments of the six āyatanas - and the dhammas that are related to them - in terms of anattā in SN 35 (e.g. SN 35.6).

♦ The understanding of anattā is often described (e.g. SN 22.17) with a stock phrase: 'n·etaṃ mama, n·eso·ham·asmi, na m·eso attā' (This is not mine, I am not this, this is not my self). Ñāṇavīra considers this translation as misleading since he considers it can mean 'but something else is mine', and he prefers 'Not, this is mine; not, this I am; not, this is my self'.

♦ The characteristic of anattā was taught by the Buddha for the first time in what is considered as his second discourse, the Anatta·lakkhaṇa Sutta. The intellectual argument used to expose this teaching is the fact that if each of the upādāna·kkhandhas belonged to the self, then the self would be able to decide how it should be, which is not the case. The understanding of anattā is then derived from the understanding of anicca and dukkha according to a standard series of questions.

♦ At MN 35, the Buddha explains anattā by absence of ownership, using an analogy with a king owning his realm.

♦ At AN 4.49, seeing as atta something which is actually anattā constitutes one of four saññā·vipallāsa (distortions of perception), citta·vipallāsa (perversions of the mind), diṭṭhi·vipallāsa (inversions of views), the other three being the corresponding misunderstanding of asubha, aniccā and dukkha.



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anattasaññā: [anattā+saññā]

perception of non-self.

♦ Very often, this perception is applied specifically to what is already perceived as unsatisfactory and it becomes dukkhe anatta·saññā.

♦ The practice of anatta·saññā leads to abandoning asmi·māna (AN 9.1).

♦ The practice of anatta·saññā also leads to abandoning attānu·diṭṭhi (the view of self): see AN 6.112.

♦ At AN 6.104, 6 benefits are cited as constituting enough motivation for establishing anatta·saññā in all dhammas.

♦ According to AN 7.49, when one often applies his/her mind to this practice, he/she is automatically devoid of I-making and my-making and dwells at peace, liberated.

♦ The seven bojjhaṅgas can be developed in conjunction with anatta·saññā (SN 46.78).

♦ According to AN 7.27, so long as the bhikkhus practice anatta·saññā, only growth can be expected of them, not decline.

♦ Other perceptions usually associated with anatta·saññā include anicca·saññā, anicce dukkha·saññā, anatta·saññā, ādīnava·saññā, pahāna·saññā, virāga·saññā and nirodha·saññā.



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anavajja: [an+avajja] blameless, faultless. Opposed to sāvajja. Although the meaning is slightly different, anavajja can be considered as a synonym of kusala: the explanation of what is the anavajja dhamma (blameless teaching), given in terms of the ten akusala kamma·patha at AN 10.184, is identical the explanation of what is kusala given at AN 10.180. Moreover, at MN 88, anavajja is clearly mentioned as a synonym of kusala, along with abyāpajjha and sukha·vipāka. We also find the following synonym and explanation at AN 3.66: viññu·ppasatthā (commended by the wise) and "[yo] hitāya sukhāya saṃvattati" ([what] leads to [one's] welfare and well-being).

♦ The word anavajja·sukha (the pleasure of blamelessness) is repeatedly used to describe the feeling arising from observing the ariya sīla·kkhandha, which are described in their standard description (see at the bottom of that page).

♦ The word anavajja·bala (the strength of blamesslessness) appears at AN 4.153 and the two following suttas together with paññā·bala, vīriya·bala, sati·bala, samādhi·bala and bhāvana·bala. The word anavajja·bala is defined at AN 9.5 as the fact of being endowed with anavajja kāya·kamma, anavajja vacī·kamma and anavajja mano·kamma.



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anicca: [a+nicca]

1) adj: inconstant, impermanent, momentary.

2) n: inconstancy, impermanence, momentariness.

♦ The understanding of anicca is described with the attainment of sotāpatti as the rise of 'the Dhamma eye' (Dhamma·cakkhu): “yaṃ kiñci samudaya·dhammaṃ, sabbaṃ taṃ nirodha·dhamman”ti (whatever has the nature of arising has the nature of ceasing). It is the case of āyasmā Koṇḍañña at SN 56.11.

Anicca is the first of the ti·lakkhaṇas, a universal fact whose understanding is declared at SN 22.40 to be a way to exert dhamm·ānudhamma·ppaṭipatti.

♦ The characteristic of anicca applies to all saṅkhārās, as declared in a famous sentence which occurs in a handful of suttas: 'sabbe saṅkhārā aniccā' (all conditioned phenomena are inconstant).

♦ But as explained at SN 23.13, the characteristic of anicca is to be understood chiefly at the level of the five upādāna·kkhandhas, although it is frequent to find treatments of the six āyatanas - and the dhammas that are related to them - in terms of anicca in the Saḷāyatana Saṃyutta (e.g. SN 35.4).

♦ At AN 4.49, seeing as nicca something which is actually anicca constitutes one of four saññā·vipallāsa (distortions of perception), citta·vipallāsa (perversions of the mind), diṭṭhi·vipallāsa (inversions of views), the other three being the corresponding misunderstanding of asubha, dukkha and anatta. The impermanence of phenomena is described as the fact that they arise, transform, and pass away. It is the first of the ti·lakkhaṇa, and is considered as the easiest to be observed. Its understanding naturally leads to the understanding of the other two.



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aniccasaññā: [anicca+saññā]

perception of impermanence/inconstancy. This practice is explained at AN 10.60: it happens at level of the five khandhas.

♦ The practice of anicca·saññā leads to abandoning asmi·māna (MN 62). The process is explained at AN 9.1: anicca·saññā leads to anatta·saññā, which in turn leads to asmi·māna·samugghāta (eradication of the conceit 'I am').

♦ At SN 22.102, it is said that anicca·saññā leads to the elimination of kāma·rāga, rūpa·rāga, bhava·rāga, avijjā, and the eradication of asmi·māna. The sutta lists 10 similes to underline the power of anicca·saññā.

♦ The practice of anicca·saññā also leads to abandoning assāda·diṭṭhi (the view of sensory enjoyment): see AN 6.112.

♦ At AN 6.102, 6 benefits are cited as constituting enough motivation for establishing anicca·saññā in all saṅkhāras.

♦ According to AN 7.49, when one often applies his/her mind to this practice, he/she is automatically repulsed by lābha·sakkāra·siloka.

♦ The seven bojjhaṅgas can be developed in conjunction with anicca·saññā (SN 46.76).

♦ According to AN 7.27, so long as the bhikkhus practice anicca·saññā, only growth can be expected of them, not decline.

♦ In the Aṅguttara Nikāya, anicca·saññā often appears together with asubha·saññā, āhāre paṭikūla·saññā, sabba·loke an·abhirata·saññā, maraṇa·saññā, anicce dukkha·saññā, (sometimes preceded by: dukkhe) anatta·saññā, ādīnava·saññā, pahāna·saññā, virāga·saññā and nirodha·saññā.



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anicce dukkhasaññā: [anicca dukkha+saññā]

perception of suffering in what is inconstant.

♦ It nearly always appears in the following progression: anicca·saññā, anicce dukkha·saññā, dukkhe anatta·saññā.

♦ According to AN 7.49, when one often applies his/her mind to this practice, a vivid perception of danger towards laziness is automatically established in him/her.



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ānisaṃsa: benefit, good result, generally relating to a practice.



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anusaya: inclination, latent tendency, propensity, persistance of a dormant or latent disposition. The seven anusayas are listed at AN 7.11:

1. kāma·rāg·ānusaya
2. paṭigh·ānusaya
3. diṭṭh·ānusaya
4. vicikicch·ānusaya
5. mān·ānusaya
6. bhava·rāg·ānusaya
7. avijj·ānusaya

According to Rhys Davids: 'In the oldest texts the word usually occurs absolutely, without mention of the cause or direction of the bias. [This] list govern[s] the connotation of the word, but it would be wrong to put that connotation back into [all] the earlier passages.'

♦ According to MN 148, rāg·ānusaya and paṭigh·ānusaya are activated by mental reaction (i.e. ayoniso manasikāra) to sukhā vedanā and dukkhā vedanā respectively, whereas avijj·ānusaya is activated on account of adukkham·asukhā vedanā with lack of proper understanding, attitude which is described at SN 36.6 as typical of an uninstructed (assutavā) puthujjana. On the other hand, those anusayas are not activated if one abstains from these mental reactions and develops proper understanding, attitude which is described at SN 36.6 as typical of an instructed (sutavā) ariyasāvaka.

♦ According to MN 18, the cessation of all these anusayas comes from not finding anything to delight in, welcome, or remain fastened to in the source from which saññās and categories [born of] papañca beset an individual (yato·nidānaṃ purisaṃ papañca·saññā·saṅkhā samudācaranti, ettha ce natthi abhinanditabbaṃ abhivaditabbaṃ ajjhositabbaṃ). This explains why at MN 44 all vedanās are not underlied by anusayas.

♦ According to AN 7.12, the brahmacariya is fulfilled (brahmacariya vussati) with the abandoning and destruction of each anusaya, and the end of suffering is reached when all of them have been abandoned.



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anussati: [anu+sati]

recollection, remembrance, calling to mind. There are six main anussatis which are generally called together anussatiṭṭhāna (subjects of recollection). They are defined at AN 6.25. They consist of:

1. Buddh·ānussati

2. Dhamm·ānussati

3. Saṅgh·ānussati

4. sīl·ānussati

5. cāg·ānussati

6. devat·ānussati

The first four of these are analyzed in detail here. This list of six is quite well supported by other suttas, although there can be some variations. Sometimes only five of them occur (e.g. AN 3.71) or some are replaced by different though similar ones (e.g. kalyāṇamitte instead of Saṅgha at AN 11.13). AN 3.71 emphasizes their importance as it describes them as main practices to be undertaken by lay people for observing Uposatha. The effects that the practice of these anussatis has on the mind are described as follows:

♦ At SN 11.3, the first three of them (Buddh·ānussati, Dhamm·ānussati Saṅgh·ānussati) are recommended to allay any kind of fear.

♦ According to AN 3.71, the mind becomes bright (cittaṃ pasīdati), joy arises (pāmojjaṃ uppajjati), and the impurities of the mind are abandoned (ye cittassa upakkilesā te pahīyanti). According to AN 6.25, these anussatis also make the mind upright and make an ariyasāvaka emerge from the five kāma·guṇas.

♦ According to AN 11.13, the anussatis should be used as a basis for establishing sati.

♦ At AN 6.30, recollecting the Buddha or one of his disciples constitutes the supreme recollection (anussat·ānuttariya) for the purification of beings, etc. (formula of the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta's introduction).

♦ According to AN 6.10, when an ariyasāvaka practices these anussatis, at that time his mind is not under the sway of any of the three akusala·mūlas, and he gains an inspiration and a joy (pāmojja) that can lead him up to samādhi.

♦ At AN 6.141, the six anussatis are recommended for the abhiññā of rāga.

♦ Between AN 1.296 and AN 1.301, each of the six anussatis is recommended for attaining virāga, nirodha, upasama, abhiññā, sambodhi and nibbāna. And again between AN 1.485 and AN 1.490, one who develops each of them is said to respond to the Buddha's advice and not eat piṇḍapāta in vain.

♦ According to MN 28, if the practice of the first three anussatis does not bear its fruits, then one should arouse saṃvega.

♦ One other major use of the concept (more than 80 times in the four Nikāyas) is to refer to the practice of pubbe·nivās·ānussati·ñāṇa (e.g. AN 3.102) in the stock phrase: 'bhikkhu anekavihitaṃ pubbenivāsaṃ anussarati, seyyathidaṃ ekampi jātiṃ... (a bhikkhu recollects his various former abodes, that is to say one birth... etc.)' which is analyzed in detail here.

AN 10.153 and AN 10.197 specify things that should not be recollected (na anussaritabbaṃ): each factor of the tenfold micchā·paṭipadā (including micchā·ñāṇa and micchā·vimutti), as well as any undertaking of whichever of the ten akusala kamma·pathas. The opposite factors are to be recollected.

♦ Recollecting those who are accomplished on the path is said to be very helpful. At SN 46.3, it is an opportunity to recollect the Dhamma learned from them and it arouses sati·sambojjhaṅga. At MN 68, a bhikkhu recollecting a noble companion who has passed away directs his mind towards his saddhā, suta, sīla, cāga and paññā. At MN 31, basically anyone recollecting hardcore practitioners such as Anuruddha, Nandiya and Kimibila will get benefited.

♦ There is mention of another anussati, the recollection of peace (upasam·ānussati), which appears only at AN 1.305 and AN 1.494. It is not defined anywhere in the suttas. The Visuddhimagga defines it in terms similar to virāga·saññā and nirodha·saññā.

♦ There is also another completely different set of five anussatis that appears only at AN 6.29. Those are:

1. The first three jhānas, leading to a pleasant abiding in the visible world (diṭṭha·dhamma·sukha·vihāra)

2. āloka·saññā, leading to the attainment of knowledge and vision (ñāṇa·dassana·p·paṭilābha)

3. the 31 body parts, leading to abandoning sensual avidity (kāma·rāga·p·pahāna)

4. the nine sivathika contemplations, leading to the uprooting of the conceit 'I am' (asmi·māna·samugghāta)

5. The fourth jhāna, leading to the attainment of various elements (aneka·dhātu·paṭivedha).

The fifth referring most probably to the six abhiññās.



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anussava: [anu+sava]

1) hearsay, report, rumor. Clearly used in this sense at MN 68.

2) what has been heard/learned from another (through religion, philosophy, science, knowledge, theories, opinions and traditions of all sorts), anussavika being in this case most simply (although somewhat narrowly) translated as traditionalist. The brahmins of the three Vedas are described as such at MN 100.

See also the analysis provided in footnote 1 here.

♦ At MN 76, two dangers of relying on an anussava are cited: the teachings or opinions may not be remembered correctly, and they may simply not be true.

Anussava appears most often in two sets of either erroneous or uncertain grounds for accepting a teaching or a view:

♦ In conjunction with paramparā (what has been transmitted [by a tradition]), itikira (general consensus), piṭakasampadāna (what has been handed down in a collection of texts), takkahetu (the basis of logical reasoning), nayahetu (the basis of inference), ākāraparivitakka (deep reflection), diṭṭhinijjhānakkhanti, bhabbarūpatā (what seems probable), and "samaṇo no garū"ti ([the thought:] 'The samaṇa is our revered teacher'). See for example AN 3.66 orAN 3.67.

♦ In conjunction with saddhā, ruci (liking), ākāraparivitakka (deep reflection), and diṭṭhinijjhānakkhanti. At SN 35.153, these five are contrasted with "having seen phenomenas with discernment" (dhammā paññāya disvā). At SN 12.68 they are contrasted with "I know, I see" (jānāmi, passāmi). At MN 95, they are presented as five improper grounds to draw a definite conclusion (ekaṃsena niṭṭhaṃ gacchati).



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anuttaro purisadammasārathī: supreme leader of persons to be tamed - one of the attributes of the Buddha, which appears in his standard description (for which see Buddhānussati). See the explanation of the term given at MN 137.



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āpatti: vinaya offense. There are ten types of offenses: pārājika, saṅghādisesa, aniyata (indefinite), nissaggiya pāctittiya (forfeiture and confession), pāctittiya (confession only), pāṭidesanīya (acknowledgement), sekhia (training), dukkaṭa, dubbhāsita (wrong speech) and thullaccaya (grave offense).



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apāya:

1) ruin, loss, separation (from wealth or dear ones)

2) lapse, falling away (e.g. from good conduct)

3) state of woe, unhappy afterlife. Almost always associated with vinipāta and dug·gati. The apāya are traditionally numbered as four: birth as an asura, in petti·visaya, in tiracchāna·yoni and in niraya.

♦ According to AN 10.176, beings are lead to such states of existence by adopting the ten akusala kamma·pathas, often referred to as the threefold duccaritas. A very large number of other behavior are described as having the same result, most of which though are mere elaborations of the aforementioned ten duccaritas. For example: stinginess (macchera), envy (issā), kāma·rāga [SN 37.4]; being faithless (assaddha), without conscienciousness (ahirika), without scruple (anottappī), angry (kodhana), undiscerning (duppañña) [SN 37.5], malicious (upanāhī) [SN 37.6], lazy (kusīta) [SN 37.12] etc. It is also said (e.g. MN 41) that the reason for going to an apāya is conduct that is not in accordance with the Dhamma and conduct that is unrighteous (a·dhamma·cariyā·visama·cariyā).

♦ According to AN 8.54, there are four sources of apāya (ruin) in this human life: womanizing (itthi·dhutta), drunkenness (surā·dhutta), gambling (akkha·dhutta), and bad friends (pāpa·mitta).



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appamāda: [a+pamāda]

heedfulness, assiduity, diligence, seriousness of practice. The Commentary glosses it as similar in meaning to sati, although if the latter often refers to remembering the cultivation of skilful states, appamāda is rather focused on avoiding unskilful mental states. Bhikkhu Bodhi remarks: appamāda "denotes an attitude of critical scrutiny directed toward one's own mind both in its internal movement and in its reactions to external affairs. The term suggests diligent effort and acute attentiveness, and it further sounds a note of moral caution and care." Appamāda is defined at SN 48.56 as follows:

Katamo ca bhikkhave, appamādo? Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu cittaṃ rakkhati āsavesu ca sāsavesu ca dhammesu.

And what, bhikkhus, is heedfulness? Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu protects his mind against the mental impurities and the mental states that accompany them.


Another explicit definition is given at SN 35.97 in relation to two criteria (sense restraint and knowing phenomena):

kathañca, bhikkhave, appamādavihārī hoti? cakkhundriyaṃ... jivhindriyaṃ... manindriyaṃ saṃvutassa, bhikkhave, viharato cittaṃ na byāsiñcati cakkhuviññeyyesu rūpesu. tassa abyāsittacittassa pāmojjaṃ jāyati. pamuditassa pīti jāyati. pītimanassa kāyo passambhati. passaddhakāyo sukhaṃ viharati. sukhino cittaṃ samādhiyati. samāhite citte dhammā pātubhavanti. dhammānaṃ pātubhāvā appamādavihārī tveva saṅkhaṃ gacchati.

And how, bhikkhus, does one dwell heedfully? In one, bhikkhus, who dwells restraining the eye faculty... tongue faculty... mind faculty, the mind is not stained by mental phenomena cognizable by the mind. In one whose mind is not stained, joy arises. In one who is joyful, exaltation arises. For one who is exalted, the body becomes tranquil. One whose body is tranquil dwells in well-being. For one in well-being, the mind concentrates. When the mind is concentrated, phenomena become manifest. When phenomena are manifest, one is considered as 'one who dwells heedfully'.


Yet another explicit definition is given at SN 55.40, in relation to not remaining content with the four sot·āpattiy·aṅgas and cultivating solitude:

kathañca, nandiya, ariyasāvako appamādavihārī hoti? idha, nandiya, ariyasāvako buddhe... dhamme... sanghe aveccappasādena... ariyakantehi sīlehi samannāgato hoti... so tena ariyakantehi sīlehi asantuṭṭho uttari vāyamati divā pavivekāya rattiṃ paṭisallānāya. tassa evaṃ appamattassa viharato pāmojjaṃ jāyati. etc.

And how, Nandiya, does a noble disciple dwell heedfully? Here, Nandiya, a noble disciple is endowed with verified confidence in the Buddha... Dhamma... Sangha... with virtues that are pleasing to the noble ones... Not content with virtues that are pleasing to the noble ones, he strives further in solitude by day and seclusion by night. For him, dwelling thus heedfully, joy arises etc. (the same as above)


At AN 4.76, appamāda is defined as having hiri and ottappa:

hirīmāyaṃ, bhikkhave, ottāpī appamatto hoti.

One, bhikkhus, who has conscientiousness and moral cautiousness is heedful.


Appamāda plays a very important role in the Buddha's teaching, as his last words make it obvious (SN 6.15):

‘vayadhammā saṅkhārā, appamādena sampādethā’ti.

By nature, Fabrications pass away. Strive with heedfulness.


♦ The Buddha states at AN 2.5 how decisive he considered appamāda had been for his own enlightenment:

tassa mayhaṃ, bhikkhave, appamādādhigatā sambodhi, appamādādhigato anuttaro yogakkhemo.

It was through heedfulness, bhikkhus, that I achieved awakening, it was by heedfulness that I achieved the supreme relief from the yoke.


♦ The importance of appamāda is often stressed with reference to the act of meditating (jhāyati) at the end of certain suttas, in the following formula:

“yaṃ, bhikkhave, satthārā karaṇīyaṃ sāvakānaṃ hitesinā anukampakena anukampaṃ upādāya, kataṃ vo taṃ mayā. etāni, bhikkhave, rukkhamūlāni, etāni suññāgārāni; jhāyatha, bhikkhave, mā pamādattha; mā pacchā vippaṭisārino ahuvattha. ayaṃ vo amhākaṃ anusāsanī”ti.

What should be done by a Teacher out of compassion for his disciples, seeking their welfare and having compassion for them, that I have done for you. There are these roots of trees, those are empty dwellings. Meditate, bhikkhus, do not be negligent, do not regret it later. This is our instruction to you.


♦ Its importance is also attested at AN 10.15 and then illustrated by ten similes:

ye keci, bhikkhave, dhammā kusalā kusalabhāgiyā kusalapakkhikā, sabbe te appamādamūlakā appamādasamosaraṇā, appamādo tesaṃ dhammānaṃ aggamakkhāyati.

Whatever states there are that are skilful, partaking of the skilful, siding with the skilful, all of them are rooted in heedfulness, they converge in heedfulness, and heedfulness is reckoned as the foremost among them.


♦ The Dhammapada has its own full Chapter II on the topic of appamāda.

♦ At AN 4.116, appamāda is recomended to abandon the threefold duccarita and micchā·diṭṭhi, and at AN 4.117 to prevent the three akusala·mūlas from taking over the mind as well as to ward off intoxication (mada).

♦ Miscellaneous quotes about appamāda:

AN 10.68

yassa kassaci appamādo atthi kusalesu dhammesu, tassa yā ratti vā divaso vā āgacchati, vuddhiyeva pāṭikaṅkhā kusalesu dhammesu no parihāni.

For one who is heedful in skilful mental states, whether night or day comes, only growth and not deterioration in skilful mental states is to be expected.


SN 1.36

appamādañca medhāvī, dhanaṃ seṭṭhaṃva rakkhati.

A wise man guards heedfulness as his foremost treasure.


AN 6.19

‘appamattā viharissāma, tikkhaṃ maraṇassatiṃ bhāvessāma āsavānaṃ khayāyā’ti.

We will remain heedful, we will develop mindfulness of death keenly for the destruction of mental impurities.


♦ Miscellaneous quotes about lay practice:

AN 6.53

appamādo eko dhammo bhāvito bahulīkato ubho atthe samadhiggayha tiṭṭhati: diṭṭhadhammikañceva atthaṃ yo ca attho samparāyiko.

Heedfulness is the one thing that, when developed and pursued, can bring both kinds of benefit: the benefit in the visible world and the benefit in the future life.


AN 5.213

sīlavā sīlasampanno appamādādhikaraṇaṃ mahantaṃ bhogakkhandhaṃ adhigacchati.

The virtuous endowed with virtue accumulates much wealth thanks to heedfulness.


SN 3.18

“appamattassa te, mahārāja, viharato appamādaṃ upanissāya, attāpi gutto rakkhito bhavissati: itthāgārampi guttaṃ rakkhitaṃ bhavissati, kosakoṭṭhāgārampi guttaṃ rakkhitaṃ bhavissatī”ti

When, Mahārāja, you remain heedful, with heedfulness for support, you yourself will be guarded and protected, your retinue of women will be guarded and protected, your treasury and storehouse will be guarded and protected.



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appicchatā: [appa+iccha+]

1) litt: fewness of desires; fact of being easily satisfied, of desiring little.

2) modesty, unpretentiousness.

The word is close in meaning to santuṭṭhitā. The antonym is mahicchatā.

♦ At MN 4, appicchatā is opposed to lābha·sakkāra·siloka nikāmayati (desiring gain, honor and fame):

na kho panāhaṃ lābhasakkārasilokaṃ nikāmayamāno araññavanapatthāni pantāni senāsanāni paṭisevāmi; appicchohamasmi. ye hi vo ariyā appicchā araññavanapatthāni pantāni senāsanāni paṭisevanti tesamahaṃ aññataro’ti.

But I do not resort to distant forest lodgings desirous of gain, honor or fame; I am of few desires. I resort to distant forest lodgings being one among those who are noble and of few desires.


♦ At AN 8.23, appicchatā is referred to as not desiring others to know about one's own good qualities:

appiccho so, bhikkhu, kulaputto santeyeva attani kusaladhamme na icchati parehi ñāyamāne.

That son a family, bhikkhu, has few desires, since he does not desire that others would know his inner wholesome qualities.


AN 8.30 defines the term along the same line, with direct reference to some of those qualities.

♦ At AN 1.63, appicchatā is presented as one of the core qualities to be developed:

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannā vā kusalā dhammā uppajjanti uppannā vā akusalā dhammā parihāyanti yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, appicchatā.

Bhikkhus, I do not see a single other quality on account of which unarisen wholesome qualities arise and arisen unwholesome qualities disappear so much as fewness of desires.


AN 1.119

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yo evaṃ saddhammassa ṭhitiyā asammosāya anantaradhānāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, appicchatā.

Bhikkhus, I do not see a single other quality that leads to the prolongation, non-confusion and non-disappearence of the authentic Dhamma so much as fewness of desires.



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āraddhavīriya: [āraddha+vīriya]

1) (n:) aroused energy

2) (n:) one who is energetic, who has aroused energy

3) (adj:) energetic, of/with aroused energy. Bala·sampanna (possessing strength) is a synonym (AN 3.97) and kusīta (lazy) is the antonym (SN 12.22 below). Asallīna (unflagging, tireless) is a synonym for āraddha (e.g. at MN 4). The associated noun is vīriy·ārambha. Being āraddha·vīriya is defined in two major ways. The general definition is as follows (e.g. at AN 8.30):

Bhikkhu āraddha·vīriyo viharati a·kusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ pahānāya, kusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ upasampadāya, thāmavā daḷha·parakkamo anikkhitta·dhuro kusalesu dhammesu

A bhikkhu remains with aroused energy, for abandoning unskilful mental states, for acquiring skilful mental states, he is steadfast, firm in his effort, without relaxing from his duty regarding skilful mental states.

Another definition, more impressive, is sometimes given (e.g. at SN 21.3):

‘āraddhavīriyo āraddhavīriyoti, bhante, vuccati. kittāvatā nu kho, bhante, āraddhavīriyo hotī’ti? ... bhikkhu āraddha·vīriyo viharati: ‘kāmaṃ taco ca nhāru ca aṭṭhī ca avasissatu, sarīre upasussatu maṃsa·lohitaṃ, yaṃ taṃ purisa·thāmena purisa·vīriyena purisa·parakkamena pattabbaṃ na taṃ a·pāpuṇitvā vīriyassa saṇṭhānaṃ bhavissatī’ti.

'One with aroused energy, one with aroused energy', Bhante, is it said. But how, Bhante, is one with aroused energy? ... A bhikkhu remains with aroused energy: 'Let only my skin, sinews, and bones remain, let the flesh and blood in my body dry up, but there will be no relaxation of my energy without having attained what is to be gained by manly steadfastness, by manly energy, by manly effort.'

♦ At SN 48.50, being āraddha·vīriya is seen as a consequence of having saddhā and as being a basis for developing sati, and then in turn samādhi.

♦ According to AN 1.18, being āraddha·vīriya, destroys and prevents the arising of thīna·middhā, which is one of the five nīvaraṇas.

♦ According to AN 1.61, being āraddha·vīriya, is the best way to foster kusalā dhammā and to remove akusalā dhammā.

♦ According to MN 118, in one who is āraddha·vīriya appears pīti nirāmisa (unworldly exaltation).

♦ Probably the most inspiring words about arousing energy are given at SN 12.22:

“dukkhaṃ, bhikkhave, kusīto viharati vokiṇṇo pāpakehi akusalehi dhammehi, mahantañca sadatthaṃ parihāpeti. āraddhavīriyo ca kho, bhikkhave, sukhaṃ viharati pavivitto pāpakehi akusalehi dhammehi, mahantañca sadatthaṃ paripūreti. na, bhikkhave, hīnena aggassa patti hoti. aggena ca kho, bhikkhave, aggassa patti hoti.

A lazy person, bhikkhus, dwells in suffering, full of evil unskilful mental states, and great is the personal welfare that he loses. But a person of aroused energy dwells in well-being, secluded from evil unskilful mental states, and great is the personal welfare that he achieves. It is not by the inferior that the supreme is obtained; rather, it is by the supreme that the supreme is obtained.

maṇḍapeyyamidaṃ, bhikkhave, brahmacariyaṃ, satthā sammukhībhūto. tasmātiha, bhikkhave, vīriyaṃ ārabhatha appattassa pattiyā, anadhigatassa adhigamāya, asacchikatassa sacchikiriyāya. ‘evaṃ no ayaṃ amhākaṃ pabbajjā avañjhā bhavissati saphalā saudrayā. yesañca mayaṃ paribhuñjāma cīvara-piṇḍapātasenāsana-gilāna-ppaccaya-bhesajja-parikkhāraṃ tesaṃ te kārā amhesu mahapphalā bhavissanti mahānisaṃsā’ti. evañhi vo, bhikkhave, sikkhitabbaṃ.

This brahmic way, bhikkhus, is a beverage of cream; the Teacher is present. Therefore, bhikkhus, arouse your energy for the attainment of what has not yet been attained, for the achievement of what has not yet been attained, for the realization of what has not yet been attained, [thinking]: ‘In such a way this going forth of ours will not be barren, rather it will be fruitful and fertile; and when we use the robes, almsfood, lodgings, and medicinal requisites [offered to us by others], these services they provide for us will be of great fruit and great benefit to them.’ Thus, bhikkhus, should you train yourselves.

attatthaṃ vā hi, bhikkhave, sampassamānena alameva appamādena sampādetuṃ; paratthaṃ vā hi, bhikkhave, sampassamānena alameva appamādena sampādetuṃ; ubhayatthaṃ vā hi, bhikkhave, sampassamānena alameva appamādena sampādetun”ti.

Seeing your own welfare, bhikkhus, is enough to strive with heedfulness; seeing the welfare of others is enough to strive with heedfulness; seeing the welfare of both is enough to strive with heedfulness.

♦ According to AN 6.55, acc·āraddha·vīriya (excess of energy) leads to uddhacca ('acc·āraddha·vīriyaṃ uddhaccāya saṃvattati') and according to MN 128, it can lead to falling away from samādhi, just as one would kill a quail by holding it too strongly by the neck. By the way, this could interestingly explain what happens at AN 9.35, where one also falls away from samādhi as a result of undertaking a wrong way to reach the second jhāna from the first. MN 128 also explains that being atilīna·vīriya (lacking energy) can lead to falling away from samādhi, just as one would let go of a quail by not holding it strongly enough.

Vīriy·indriya (spiritual faculty of energy) is defined as being āraddha·vīriya (SN 48.9).

♦ According to AN 10.76, being āraddha·vīriya renders one capable of abandoning uddhacca, a·saṃvara (non-restraint) and dus·sīla (unvirtuous behavior).

♦ At AN 4.11, continuously suppressing the three types of unskilful vitakkas in all the four postures is described as being āraddha·vīriya.

♦ At AN 4.12, having abandoned the five nīvaraṇas, having established sati, passaddhi and finally being samāhita is described as being āraddha·vīriya.

♦ According to AN 1.324 and AN 1.325, being āraddha·vīriya leads to dukkha in a badly expounded teaching (dur·akkhāta dhamma·vinaya) and to sukha in a well expounded teaching (sv·ākkhāta dhamma·vinaya).



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arahant: lit: 'a worthy one'. Derived from verb 'arahati' (to be worthy of, to deserve, to merit). It seems the term was already in use in India before the Buddha and used as an honorific title, particularly for samaṇas. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, is also referred to as an arahant in Jain scriptures. In the context of the Buddha's teaching, it refers to an individual who has completed the path and will not be reborn after death. The suttas offer a great variety of ways to define an arahant. At the time of death, he enters Parinibbāna.



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arahatta: state of an arahant.



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arañña: forest, wilderness.

Arañña is one of nine vivitta senāsana (secluded lodgings) often cited in the suttas as proper places for practice (eg. MN 27, AN 9.40):

vivittaṃ senāsanaṃ bhajati araññaṃ rukkhamūlaṃ pabbataṃ kandaraṃ giriguhaṃ susānaṃ vanapatthaṃ abbhokāsaṃ palālapuñjaṃ.

He resorts to a secluded dwelling: the forest, the foot of a tree, a mountain, a glen, a hillside cave, a charnel ground, a forest thicket, a place out in the open, a heap of straw.

Often, the list is shortened as follows:

araññagato vā rukkhamūlagato vā suññāgāragato vā nisīdati...

Having gone to the forest or at the foot of a tree or in an empty room, he seats down...

In a few occasions, it is mentioned that brahmins or sages live in leaf huts in the forest (araññ·āyatane paṇṇa·kuṭīsu), as at DN 27, MN 93 and SN 11.9, or that the Buddha or other monks live in forest huts (arañña·kuṭika), as at SN 4.20, MN 125 or MN 136.

♦ Being a forest dweller (āraññika) was held in very high esteem by the Buddha and according to SN 15.13, it seems that he saw this practice, together with others, as very helpful for liberation:

“ime kho tiṃsamattā pāveyyakā bhikkhū sabbe āraññikā sabbe piṇḍapātikā sabbe paṃsukūlikā sabbe tecīvarikā sabbe sasaṃyojanā. yaṃnūnāhaṃ imesaṃ tathā dhammaṃ deseyyaṃ yathā nesaṃ imasmiṃyeva āsane anupādāya āsavehi cittāni vimucceyyun”ti.

These thirty bhikkhus from Pāvā are all forest dwellers, almsfood eaters, cast-off rags wearers, three-robes-only users [but] still fettered. What if I taught them the Dhamma in such a way that their minds would be liberated from their impurities through non-attachment [while sitting] on those very seats?


At SN 16.5, the list is expanded with additional qualities:

· piṇḍapāt·ika (almsfood eater)

· paṃsu·kūl·ika (cast-off rags wearer)

· te·cīvar·ika (three-robes-only user)

· appiccha

· santuṭṭha

· pavivitta

· asaṃsaṭṭha (lonesome)

· āraddha·vīriya

“ahaṃ kho, bhante, dīgharattaṃ āraññiko ceva āraññikattassa ca vaṇṇavādī, piṇḍapātiko ceva piṇḍapātikattassa ca vaṇṇavādī, paṃsukūliko ceva paṃsukūlikattassa ca vaṇṇavādī, tecīvariko ceva tecīvarikattassa ca vaṇṇavādī, appiccho ceva appicchatāya ca vaṇṇavādī, santuṭṭho ceva santuṭṭhiyā ca vaṇṇavādī, pavivitto ceva pavivekassa ca vaṇṇavādī, asaṃsaṭṭho ceva asaṃsaggassa ca vaṇṇavādī, āraddhavīriyo ceva vīriyārambhassa ca vaṇṇavādī”ti.

Bhante, for a long time I have been a forest dweller and have praised dwelling in the forest. I have been an almsfood eater and have praised eating almsfood. I have been a cast-off rags wearer and have praised wearing cast off rags. I have been a three-robes-only user and have praised using only three robes. I have been of few desires and have praised being of few desires. I have been content and have praised being content. I have been reclusive and have praised being reclusive. I have been lonely and have praised being lonely. I have been of aroused energy and have praised being of aroused energy.


♦ Forest dwelling is often recommended to the monks, as at AN 5.114:

“ye te, ānanda, bhikkhū navā acirapabbajitā adhunāgatā imaṃ dhammavinayaṃ, te vo, ānanda, bhikkhū pañcasu dhammesu samādapetabbā nivesetabbā patiṭṭhāpetabbā. katamesu pañcasu?

Ananda, the new monks — those who have not long gone forth, who are newcomers in this Dhamma & Discipline — should be encouraged, exhorted, and established in these five things. Which five?

(...)

(...)

“‘etha tumhe, āvuso, āraññikā hotha, araññavanapatthāni pantāni senāsanāni paṭisevathā’ti. iti kāyavūpakāse samādapetabbā nivesetabbā patiṭṭhāpetabbā.

'Come, friends, dwell in the forest. Resort to distant forest thicket lodgings.' Thus they should be encouraged, exhorted, & established in physical seclusion.


AN 1.378

“addhamidaṃ, bhikkhave, lābhānaṃ yadidaṃ āraññikattaṃ”ti.

This is truly a gain, bhikkhus: being a forest dweller.


AN 5.98

Pañcahi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bhikkhu ānāpānassatiṃ āsevanto nacirasseva akuppaṃ paṭivijjhati. Katamehi pañcahi? (...) āraññako hoti pantasenāsano

Endowed with five qualities, a bhikkhu practicing mindfulness of breathing will in no long time penetrate the unshakable [state]. Which five? (...) he is a forest dweller, [resorting to] distant lodgings


♦ The benefits of dwelling in the forest are mentioned in various places, such as AN 2.31:

“dvāhaṃ, bhikkhave, atthavase sampassamāno araññavanapatthāni pantāni senāsanāni paṭisevāmi. katame dve? attano ca diṭṭhadhammasukhavihāraṃ sampassamāno, pacchimañca janataṃ anukampamāno.

Bhikkhus, I resort to distant forest thicket lodgings seeing two benefits. Which two? Seeing my own pleasant abiding in the visible world, and out of compassion for the new generation.


At MN 150, dwelling in the forest is considered a warrant for being a worthy bhikkhu.

“sace pana vo, gahapatayo, aññatitthiyā paribbājakā evaṃ puccheyyuṃ: ‘ke panāyasmantānaṃ ākārā, ke anvayā, yena tumhe āyasmanto evaṃ vadetha: addhā te āyasmanto vītarāgā vā rāgavinayāya vā paṭipannā, vītadosā vā dosavinayāya vā paṭipannā, vītamohā vā mohavinayāya vā paṭipannā’ti? evaṃ puṭṭhā tumhe, gahapatayo, tesaṃ aññatitthiyānaṃ paribbājakānaṃ evaṃ byākareyyātha: ‘tathā hi te āyasmanto araññavanapatthāni pantāni senāsanāni paṭisevanti. natthi kho pana tattha tathārūpā cakkhuviññeyyā rūpā ye disvā disvā abhirameyyuṃ, natthi kho pana tattha tathārūpā sotaviññeyyā saddā ye sutvā sutvā abhirameyyuṃ, natthi kho pana tattha tathārūpā ghānaviññeyyā gandhā ye ghāyitvā ghāyitvā abhirameyyuṃ, natthi kho pana tattha tathārūpā jivhāviññeyyā rasā ye sāyitvā sāyitvā abhirameyyuṃ, natthi kho pana tattha tathārūpā kāyaviññeyyā phoṭṭhabbā ye phusitvā phusitvā abhirameyyuṃ. ime kho no, āvuso, ākārā, ime anvayā, yena mayaṃ evaṃ vadema: addhā te āyasmanto vītarāgā vā rāgavinayāya vā paṭipannā, vītadosā vā dosavinayāya vā paṭipannā, vītamohā vā mohavinayāya vā paṭipannā’ti.

And if, householders, heterodox spiritual wanderers ask you: 'And what are your reasons and with reference to what do you claim of those venerable ones: "Certainly, those venerable ones are devoid of lust or are practicing for the elimination of lust, they are devoid of aversion or are practicing for the elimination of aversion, they are devoid of delusion or are practicing for the elimination of delusion"?' If you are questioned thus, householders, you should answer to those heterodox spiritual wanderers: 'It is because those venerable ones resort to distant forest thicket lodgings, since there are no visible forms cognizable by the eye there such that, having seen them, they might delight in them; there are no sounds cognizable by the ear there such that, having heard them, they might delight in them; there are no smells cognizable by the nose there such that, having smelled them, they might delight in them; there are no tastes cognizable by the tongue there such that, having tasted them, they might delight in them; there are no bodily sensations cognizable by the body there such that, having felt them, they might delight in them; these, friends, are our reasons, it is with reference to this that we claim: "Certainly, those venerable ones are devoid of lust or are practicing for the elimination of lust, they are devoid of aversion or are practicing for the elimination of aversion, they are devoid of delusion or are practicing for the elimination of delusion".'


At MN 121, the perception of the forest that develops through forest dwelling is the basis for mental calm:

bhikkhu amanasikaritvā gāmasaññaṃ, amanasikaritvā manussasaññaṃ, araññasaññaṃ paṭicca manasi karoti ekattaṃ. Tassa araññasaññāya cittaṃ pakkhandati pasīdati santiṭṭhati adhimuccati.

a bhikkhu, not directing his mind to the perception of villages, not directing his mind to the perception of humans, directs his mind to the oneness produced by the perception of the forest. His mind takes to that perception of the forest and grows confident, steady and settled.


At AN 6.42, the Buddha says he is pleased with a bhikkhu dwelling in the forest in three cases:

idha panāhaṃ, nāgita, bhikkhuṃ passāmi āraññikaṃ araññe pacalāyamānaṃ nisinnaṃ. tassa mayhaṃ, nāgita, evaṃ hoti: ‘idāni ayamāyasmā imaṃ niddākilamathaṃ paṭivinodetvā araññasaññaṃyeva manasi karissati ekattan’ti. tenāhaṃ, nāgita, tassa bhikkhuno attamano homi araññavihārena.

Nāgita, I see a forest dwelling bhikkhu sitting in the forest, dozing. It occurs to me: 'Soon this venerable one will dispel his sleepiness & fatigue and direct his mind only to the perception of the forest, {see MN 121 above} in a state of oneness.' And for this reason, I am pleased with that bhikkhu's dwelling in the forest.

“idha panāhaṃ, nāgita, bhikkhuṃ passāmi āraññikaṃ araññe asamāhitaṃ nisinnaṃ. tassa mayhaṃ, nāgita, evaṃ hoti: ‘idāni ayamāyasmā asamāhitaṃ vā cittaṃ samādahissati, samāhitaṃ vā cittaṃ anurakkhissatī’ti. tenāhaṃ, nāgita, tassa bhikkhuno attamano homi araññavihārena.

Furthermore, Nāgita, I see a forest dwelling bhikkhu sitting in the forest, unconcentrated. It occurs to me: 'Soon this venerable one will concentrate his unconcentrated mind, or protect his concentrated mind.' And for this reason, I am pleased with that bhikkhu's dwelling in the forest.

“idha panāhaṃ, nāgita, bhikkhuṃ passāmi āraññikaṃ araññe samāhitaṃ nisinnaṃ. tassa mayhaṃ, nāgita, evaṃ hoti: ‘idāni ayamāyasmā avimuttaṃ vā cittaṃ vimocessati, vimuttaṃ vā cittaṃ anurakkhissatī’ti. tenāhaṃ, nāgita, tassa bhikkhuno attamano homi araññavihārena.

Furthermore, Nāgita, I see a forest dwelling bhikkhu sitting in the forest, concentrated. It occurs to me: 'Soon this venerable one will liberate his unliberated mind, or protect his liberated mind.' And for this reason, I am pleased with that bhikkhu's dwelling in the forest.


♦ The fact that bhikkhus keep dwelling in the forest is very important, as stated at AN 7.23:

“yāvakīvañca, bhikkhave, bhikkhū āraññakesu senāsanesu sāpekkhā bhavissanti, vuddhiyeva, bhikkhave, bhikkhūnaṃ pāṭikaṅkhā, no parihāni.

As long as the bhikkhus will appreciate lodgings in the forest, one can expect their prosperity, not their decline.


AN 5.80

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bhavissanti bhikkhū anāgatamaddhānaṃ senāsane kalyāṇakāmā. te senāsane kalyāṇakāmā samānā riñcissanti rukkhamūlikattaṃ, riñcissanti araññavanapatthāni pantāni senāsanāni; gāmanigamarājadhānīsu osaritvā vāsaṃ kappessanti, senāsanahetu ca anekavihitaṃ anesanaṃ appatirūpaṃ āpajjissanti.

Furthermore, bhikkhus, in the future there will be monks desirous of fine lodgings. They, desirous of fine lodgings, will abandon the practice of dwelling at the foot of a tree, they will abandon distant forest thicket lodgings, they will move to villages, towns, and royal capitals and take up residence there. For the sake of lodgings they will engage in many kinds of wrong and inappropriate things.


♦ But dwelling in the forest is nothing easy, as attested at MN 4:

durabhisambhavāni hi kho, brāhmaṇa, araññavanapatthāni pantāni senāsanāni, dukkaraṃ pavivekaṃ, durabhiramaṃ ekatte, haranti maññe mano vanāni samādhiṃ alabhamānassa bhikkhuno”ti.

It is difficult to endure distant forest thicket lodgings, it is difficult to practice seclusion, it is difficult to enjoy solitude. The forests, as it were, plunder the mind of a bhikkhu if he has not gained concentration.

The sutta then goes on to describe qualities that make forest dwelling difficult if not impossible, starting with lack of virtues, continuing with the five hindrances, and then miscellaneous qualities:

· a·parisuddha·kāya·kammantā (unpurified bodily conduct)

· a·parisuddha·vacī·kammantā (unpurified verbal conduct)

· a·parisuddha·mano·kammantā (unpurified mental conduct)

· a·parisuddh·ājīvā (unpurified livelihood)

· abhijjhālū kāmesu tibba·sā·rāgā (being covetous in sensuality and strongly passionate)

· byāpanna·cittā paduṭṭha·mana·saṅkappā (having a mind of ill will and intentions of hate)

· thīna·middha·pariyuṭṭhitā (being overcome by sloth and drowsiness)

· uddhatāvūpasanta·cittā (being restless with an unappeased mind)

· kaṅkhī vicikicchī (uncertain and doubting)

· att·ukkaṃsakā paravambhī (praising oneself and disparaging others)

· chambhī bhīruka·jātikā (subject to panic and terror)

· lābha·sakkāra·silokaṃ nikāmayamānā (desirous of honors, gain and fame)

· kusītā hīna·vīriyā (lazy and low in energy)

· muṭṭhas·satīsampajānā (unmindful and not clearly comprehending)

· samāhitā vibbhanta·cittā (unconcentrated with a wandering mind)

· dup·paññā eḷa·mūgā (of wrong wisdom, deaf-and-dumb - see MN 152)

A wonderful simile illustrates this difficulty at AN 10.99:

“durabhisambhavāni hi kho, upāli, araññavanapatthāni pantāni senāsanāni. dukkaraṃ pavivekaṃ durabhiramaṃ. ekatte haranti maññe mano vanāni samādhiṃ alabhamānassa bhikkhuno. yo kho, upāli, evaṃ vadeyya: ‘ahaṃ samādhiṃ alabhamāno araññavanapatthāni pantāni senāsanāni paṭisevissāmī’ti, tassetaṃ pāṭikaṅkhaṃ: ‘saṃsīdissati vā uplavissati vā’ti.

It is difficult to endure distant forest thicket lodgings, Upāli, it is difficult to practice seclusion, it is difficult to enjoy solitude. The forests, as it were, plunder the mind of a bhikkhu if he has not gained concentration. If anyone should say: 'Although I have not gained concentration, I will resort to distant forest thicket lodgings', it can be expected that he will either sink down or [merely] float [on the surface].

“seyyathāpi, upāli, mahāudakarahado. atha āgaccheyya hatthināgo sattaratano vā aṭṭharatano vā. tassa evamassa: ‘yaṃnūnāhaṃ imaṃ udakarahadaṃ ogāhetvā kaṇṇa-saṃdhovikampi khiḍḍaṃ kīḷeyyaṃ piṭṭhi-saṃdhovikampi khiḍḍaṃ kīḷeyyaṃ. kaṇṇa-saṃdhovikampi khiḍḍaṃ kīḷitvā piṭṭhi-saṃdhovikampi khiḍḍaṃ kīḷitvā nhatvā ca pivitvā ca paccuttaritvā yena kāmaṃ pakkameyyan’ti. so taṃ udakarahadaṃ ogāhetvā kaṇṇa-saṃdhovikampi khiḍḍaṃ kīḷeyya piṭṭhi-saṃdhovikampi khiḍḍaṃ kīḷeyya; kaṇṇa-saṃdhovikampi khiḍḍaṃ kīḷitvā piṭṭhi-saṃdhovikampi khiḍḍaṃ kīḷitvā nhatvā ca pivitvā ca paccuttaritvā yena kāmaṃ pakkameyya. taṃ kissa hetu? mahā, upāli, attabhāvo gambhīre gādhaṃ vindati.

Imagine, Upāli, that there would be a large lake. A bull elephant would come, seven or eight cubits [high]. It would occur to him: 'What if, having entered this lake, I washed my ears by playing playfully, I washed my back by playing playfully; having washed my ears by playing playfully, having washed my back by playing playfully, having bathed, drunk and come out, I would go wherever I want.' He enters that lake, washes his ears by playing playfully, washes his back by playing playfully; having washed his ears by playing playfully, having washed his back by playing playfully, having bathed, drunk and come out, he goes wherever he wants. For what reason? Because his large body finds a footing in the depths.

“atha āgaccheyya saso vā biḷāro vā. tassa evamassa: ‘ko cāhaṃ, ko ca hatthināgo! yaṃnūnāhaṃ imaṃ udakarahadaṃ ogāhetvā kaṇṇasaṃdhovikampi khiḍḍaṃ kīḷeyyaṃ piṭṭhisaṃdhovikampi khiḍḍaṃ kīḷeyyaṃ; kaṇṇasaṃdhovikampi khiḍḍaṃ kīḷitvā piṭṭhisaṃdhovikampi khiḍḍaṃ kīḷitvā nhatvā ca pivitvā ca paccuttaritvā yena kāmaṃ pakkameyyan’ti. so taṃ udakarahadaṃ sahasā appaṭisaṅkhā pakkhandeyya. tassetaṃ pāṭikaṅkhaṃ: ‘saṃsīdissati vā uplavissati vā’ti. taṃ kissa hetu? paritto, upāli, attabhāvo gambhīre gādhaṃ na vindati. evamevaṃ kho, upāli, yo evaṃ vadeyya: ‘ahaṃ samādhiṃ alabhamāno araññavanapatthāni pantāni senāsanāni paṭisevissāmī’ti, tassetaṃ pāṭikaṅkhaṃ: ‘saṃsīdissati vā uplavissati vā’ti.

Then a hare or a cat would come. It would occur to it: 'Why should a bull elephant be different from me? What if, having entered this lake, I washed my ears by playing playfully, I washed my back by playing playfully; having washed my ears by playing playfully, having washed my back by playing playfully, having bathed, drunk and come out, I would go wherever I want.' It would inconsiderately and thoughtlessly jump into the lake. It can be expected that it will either sink down or [merely] float [on the surface]. For what reason? Because its small body doesn't find a footing in the depths. In the same way, Upāli, if anyone should say: 'Although I have not gained concentration, I will resort to distant forest thicket lodgings', it can be expected that he will either sink down or [merely] float [on the surface].

Eventually, the Buddha even advises Upāli not to dwell in the forest:

iṅgha tvaṃ, upāli, saṅghe viharāhi. saṅghe te viharato phāsu bhavissatī”ti.

Come, Upāli, remain in the Saṅgha. Remaining in the Saṅgha, you will be at ease.


AN 4.262

“catūhi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bhikkhu nālaṃ araññavanappatthāni pantāni senāsanāni paṭisevituṃ. katamehi catūhi? kāmavitakkena, byāpādavitakkena, vihiṃsāvitakkena, duppañño hoti jaḷo elamūgo — imehi kho, bhikkhave, catūhi dhammehi samannāgato bhikkhu nālaṃ araññavanappatthāni pantāni senāsanāni paṭisevituṃ.

Endowed with [any of] four qualities, a monk isn't fit to stay in isolated forest & wilderness dwellings. Which four? [He is endowed] with thoughts of sensuality, with thoughts of ill will, with thoughts of harmfulness, and he is a person of weak discernment, dull, a drooling idiot. Endowed with [any of] these four qualities, a monk isn't fit to stay in isolated forest & wilderness dwellings.

“catūhi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bhikkhu alaṃ araññavanappatthāni pantāni senāsanāni paṭisevituṃ. katamehi catūhi? nekkhammavitakkena, abyāpādavitakkena, avihiṃsāvitakkena, paññavā hoti ajaḷo anelamūgo — imehi kho, bhikkhave, catūhi dhammehi samannāgato bhikkhu alaṃ araññavanappatthāni pantāni senāsanāni paṭisevitun”ti.

Endowed with four qualities, a monk is fit to stay in isolated forest & wilderness dwellings. Which four? [He is endowed] with thoughts of renunciation, with thoughts of non-ill will, with thoughts of harmlessness, and he is a discerning person, not dull, not a drooling idiot. Endowed with these four qualities, a monk is fit to stay in isolated forest & wilderness dwellings.


SN 35.46

“santi kho, migajāla, cakkhuviññeyyā rūpā iṭṭhā kantā manāpā piyarūpā kāmūpasaṃhitā rajanīyā. tañce bhikkhu abhinandati abhivadati ajjhosāya tiṭṭhati. tassa taṃ abhinandato abhivadato ajjhosāya tiṭṭhato uppajjati nandī . nandiyā sati sārāgo hoti; sārāge sati saṃyogo hoti. nandisaṃyojanasaṃyutto kho, migajāla, bhikkhu sadutiyavihārīti vuccati. ... santi ca kho, migajāla, jivhāviññeyyā rasā... santi ca kho, migajāla, manoviññeyyā dhammā iṭṭhā kantā manāpā piyarūpā kāmūpasaṃhitā rajanīyā. tañce bhikkhu abhinandati abhivadati ajjhosāya tiṭṭhati. tassa taṃ abhinandato abhivadato ajjhosāya tiṭṭhato uppajjati nandī. nandiyā sati sārāgo hoti; sārāge sati saṃyogo hoti. nandisaṃyojanasaṃyutto kho, migajāla, bhikkhu sadutiyavihārīti vuccati. evaṃvihārī ca, migajāla, bhikkhu kiñcāpi araññavanapatthāni pantāni senāsanāni paṭisevati appasaddāni appanigghosāni vijanavātāni manussarāhasseyyakāni paṭisallānasāruppāni; atha kho sadutiyavihārīti vuccati. taṃ kissa hetu? taṇhā hissa dutiyā, sāssa appahīnā. tasmā sadutiyavihārī”ti vuccati.

"Migajala, there are forms cognizable via the eye — agreeable, pleasing, charming, endearing, fostering desire, enticing — and a monk relishes them, welcomes them, & remains fastened to them. As he relishes them, welcomes them, & remains fastened to them, delight arises. There being delight, he is impassioned. Being impassioned, he is fettered. A monk joined with the fetter of delight is said to be a person living with a companion. There are sounds cognizable via the ear... aromas cognizable via the nose... flavors cognizable via the tongue... tactile sensations cognizable via the body... ideas cognizable via the intellect — agreeable, pleasing, charming, endearing, fostering desire, enticing — and a monk relishes them, welcomes them, & remains fastened to them. As he relishes them, welcomes them, & remains fastened to them, delight arises. There being delight, he is impassioned. Being impassioned, he is fettered. A monk joined with the fetter of delight is said to be a person living with a companion. A person living in this way — even if he frequents isolated forest & wilderness dwellings, with an unpopulated atmosphere, lying far from humanity, appropriate for seclusion — is still said to be living with a companion. Why is that? Because the craving that is his companion has not been abandoned by him. Thus he is said to be a person living with a companion.



Bodhi leaf





ariya: (adj:) noble - (n:) a noble one.

The earliest evidence for the use of the word 'arya' (e.g. The Behistun Inscription, 6th century BCE) indicate that it was widely used to designate the Indo-Iranian people as well as their language. The word is also recognized as the origin of the country name 'Iran'. With the migration of Indo-Iranian people to India, the term was later used by the Indic people of the Vedic period to designate themselves, and as a religious distinction between those who worshiped the Vedic deities and performed sacrifices according to the established rules, and those who did not follow the Vedic religion. The word has been understood with a racial connotation by 19th century scholars among whom Rhys Davids (and subsequently in Nazi Germany), but modern scholars reject this interpretation.

Ariya as an adjective is juxtaposed 15 times in the four Nikāyas with niyyānika (leading out [to salvation], emancipatory). It can actually be understood as meaning 'leading to the end of dukkha', as explained at MN 12:

“tāyapi kho ahaṃ, sāriputta, iriyāya tāya paṭipadāya tāya dukkarakārikāya nājjhagamaṃ uttariṃ manussadhammā alamariyañāṇadassanavisesaṃ. taṃ kissa hetu? imissāyeva ariyāya paññāya anadhigamā, yāyaṃ ariyā paññā adhigatā ariyā niyyānikā, niyyāti takkarassa sammā dukkhakkhayāya.

"Yet, Sariputta, by such conduct, by such practice, by such performance of austerities, I did not attain any superhuman states, any distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones. Why was that? Because I did not attain that noble wisdom which when attained is noble and emancipating and leads the one who practices in accordance with it to the complete destruction of suffering.


AN 10.107

“ahañca kho, bhikkhave, ariyaṃ dhovanaṃ desessāmi, yaṃ dhovanaṃ ekantanibbidāya virāgāya nirodhāya upasamāya abhiññāya sambodhāya nibbānāya saṃvattati, yaṃ dhovanaṃ āgamma jātidhammā sattā jātiyā parimuccanti, jarādhammā sattā jarāya parimuccanti, maraṇadhammā sattā maraṇena parimuccanti, soka-parideva-dukkha-domanass-upāyāsa-dhammā sattā soka-parideva-dukkha-domanass-upāyāsehi parimuccanti.

Bhikkhus, I will teach [you] a noble washing that leads exclusively to disenchantment, to detachment, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to awakening, to Extinction, a washing owing to which beings by nature subject to birth are liberated from birth, beings by nature subject to old age are liberated from old age; beings by nature subject to death are liberated from death; beings by nature subject to sorrow, lamentation, pain, affliction and despair are liberated from sorrow, lamentation, pain, affliction and despair.


MN 26

“dvemā, bhikkhave, pariyesanā: ariyā ca pariyesanā, anariyā ca pariyesanā. katamā ca, bhikkhave, anariyā pariyesanā? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco attanā jātidhammo samāno jātidhammaṃyeva pariyesati, attanā jarādhammo samāno jarādhammaṃyeva pariyesati, attanā byādhidhammo samāno byādhidhammaṃyeva pariyesati, attanā maraṇadhammo samāno maraṇadhammaṃyeva pariyesati, attanā sokadhammo samāno sokadhammaṃyeva pariyesati, attanā saṃkilesadhammo samāno saṃkilesadhammaṃyeva pariyesati.

Bhikkhus, there are these two quests: ignoble quest & noble quest. And what is ignoble quest? Here someone, being himself subject to birth, goes after what is also subject to birth. Being himself subject to aging, he goes after what is also subject to aging. Being himself subject to illness, he goes after what is also subject to illness. Being himself subject to death, he goes after what is also subject to death. Being himself subject to sorrow, he goes after what is also subject to sorrow. Being himself subject to defilement, he goes after what is also subject to defilement.

...

...

“katamā ca, bhikkhave, ariyā pariyesanā? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco attanā jātidhammo samāno jātidhamme ādīnavaṃ viditvā ajātaṃ anuttaraṃ yogakkhemaṃ nibbānaṃ pariyesati, attanā jarādhammo samāno jarādhamme ādīnavaṃ viditvā ajaraṃ anuttaraṃ yogakkhemaṃ nibbānaṃ pariyesati, attanā byādhidhammo samāno byādhidhamme ādīnavaṃ viditvā abyādhiṃ anuttaraṃ yogakkhemaṃ nibbānaṃ pariyesati, attanā maraṇadhammo samāno maraṇadhamme ādīnavaṃ viditvā amataṃ anuttaraṃ yogakkhemaṃ nibbānaṃ pariyesati, attanā sokadhammo samāno sokadhamme ādīnavaṃ viditvā asokaṃ anuttaraṃ yogakkhemaṃ nibbānaṃ pariyesati, attanā saṃkilesadhammo samāno saṃkilesadhamme ādīnavaṃ viditvā asaṃkiliṭṭhaṃ anuttaraṃ yogakkhemaṃ nibbānaṃ pariyesati. ayaṃ, bhikkhave, ariyā pariyesanā.

And what, bhikkhus, is the noble quest? Here someone, being himself subject to birth, seeing the drawbacks of birth, goes after the unborn, supreme relief from the yoke: Extinction. Being himself subject to aging, seeing the drawbacks of aging, he goes after the aging-less, supreme relief from the yoke: Extinction. Being himself subject to illness, seeing the drawbacks of illness, he goes after the illness-less, supreme relief from the yoke: Extinction. Being himself subject to death, seeing the drawbacks of death, he goes after the deathless, supreme relief from the yoke: Extinction. Being himself subject to sorrow, seeing the drawbacks of sorrow, he goes after the sorrow-less, supreme relief from the yoke: Extinction. Being himself subject to defilement, seeing the drawbacks of defilement, he goes after the undefiled, supreme relief from the yoke: Extinction. This is the noble quest.


Ariya as a noun has been traditionally understood as designating an individual who is at least a sotāpanna. However, as is often the case, it appears that the term is used with a rather loose meaning in the suttas. Sometimes, the Buddha himself is referred to as the Noble One (MN 137, SN 56.28). Some suttas imply that the word designates arahants. At MN 60, the arahants are referred to as ariyas:

santaṃyeva kho pana paraṃ lokaṃ ‘natthi paro loko’ti āha; ye te arahanto paralokaviduno tesamayaṃ paccanīkaṃ karoti...

Because there actually is the next world, when he says that 'There is no next world,' he makes himself an opponent to those arahants who know the next world...

ayañca... ariyānaṃ paccanīkatā

this... opposition to the noble ones


At AN 7.91 and 92, a noble one is described as one who is either 'far remote from' (in the Burmese edition) or 'having detroyed the enemy' (in the PTS edition), i.e. the three lower saṃyojanas which are abandoned by a sotāpanna, but also further the three akusala·mūlas that are abandoned only by an arahant (cf. SN 22.106, SN 38.2 etc.) and māna, which is one of the five saṃyojanas that are only abandoned by an arahant:

AN 7.91

“sattannaṃ, bhikkhave, dhammānaṃ ārakattā-(Burmese Edition)/arīhatattā-(PTS Edition) ariyo hoti. katamesaṃ sattannaṃ? sakkāyadiṭṭhi ārakā hoti, vicikicchā ārakā hoti, sīlabbataparāmāso ārako hoti, rāgo ārako hoti, doso ārako hoti, moho ārako hoti, māno ārako hoti.

Bhikkhus, it is by keeping far away from/the enemy-destruction of seven things that one is a noble one. Which seven? The view of self-existence is far away/destroyed; uncertainty is far away/destroyed; attachment to religious observances is far away/destroyed; avidity is far away/destroyed; aversion is far away/destroyed; delusion is far away/destroyed; self-esteem is far away/destroyed.



The exact same description is given in the next sutta with reference to arahantship:

AN 7.92

“sattannaṃ, bhikkhave, dhammānaṃ ārakattā arahā hoti. katamesaṃ sattannaṃ? sakkāyadiṭṭhi ārakā hoti, vicikicchā ārakā hoti, sīlabbataparāmāso ārako hoti, rāgo ārako hoti, doso ārako hoti, moho ārako hoti, māno ārako hoti. imesaṃ kho, bhikkhave, sattannaṃ dhammānaṃ ārakattā arahā hotī”ti.

Bhikkhus, it is by keeping far away from seven things that one is a noble one. Which seven? The view of self-existence is far away; uncertainty is far away; attachment to religious observances is far away; avidity is far away; aversion is far away; delusion is far away; self-esteem is far away.


Similarly, at MN 39 a noble one and an arahant are described in exactly the same terms:

“kathañca, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ariyo hoti? ārakāssa honti pāpakā akusalā dhammā, saṃkilesikā, ponobbhavikā, sadarā, dukkhavipākā, āyatiṃ, jātijarāmaraṇiyā. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ariyo hoti.

"And how is a monk noble? His evil, unskillful qualities that are defiled, that lead to further becoming, create trouble, ripen in stress, and lead to future birth, aging, & death have gone far away. This is how a monk is noble.

“kathañca, bhikkhave, bhikkhu arahaṃ hoti? ārakāssa honti pāpakā akusalā dhammā, saṃkilesikā, ponobbhavikā, sadarā, dukkhavipākā, āyatiṃ, jātijarāmaraṇiyā. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu arahaṃ hotī”ti.

"And how is a monk an arahant? His evil, unskillful qualities that are defiled, that lead to further becoming, create trouble, ripen in stress, and lead to future birth, aging, & death have gone far away. This is how a monk is an arahant."


But on the other hand, some suttas make it clear that a noble one is not always an arahant:

AN 4.190

“kathañca, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ariyappatto hoti? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ‘Idaṃ dukkha’nti yathā·bhūtaṃ pajānāti, ‘ayaṃ dukkha·samudayo’ti yathā·bhūtaṃ pajānāti, ‘ayaṃ dukkha·nirodho’ti yathā·bhūtaṃ pajānāti, ‘ayaṃ dukkha·nirodha·gāminī paṭipadā’ti yathā·bhūtaṃ pajānāti. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ariyappatto hotī”ti.

And how has a bhikkhu attained [the state of] a noble one? Here, a bhikkhu understands as it occurs: ‘This is suffering.’ He understands as it occurs: ‘This is the origin of suffering.’ He understands as it occurs: ‘This is the cessation of suffering.’ He understands as it occurs: ‘This is the path leading to the cessation of suffering.’ It is in this way that a bhikkhu has attained [the state of] a noble one.


SN 48.53

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, pariyāyo yaṃ pariyāyaṃ āgamma sekho bhikkhu sekhabhūmiyaṃ ṭhito ‘sekhosmī’ti pajānāti? idha, bhikkhave, sekho bhikkhu ‘idaṃ dukkhan’ti yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti, ‘ayaṃ dukkhasamudayo’ti yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti, ‘ayaṃ dukkhanirodho’ti yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti, ‘ayaṃ dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā’ti yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti — ayampi kho, bhikkhave, pariyāyo yaṃ pariyāyaṃ āgamma sekho bhikkhu sekhabhūmiyaṃ ṭhito ‘sekhosmī’ti pajānāti”.

And what, bhikkhus, is the method coming to which a bhikkhu who is a learner, standing at the level of a learner, understands: ‘I am a trainee’? Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu who is a learner understands as it occurs: ‘This is suffering’; he understands as it occurs: ‘This is the origin of suffering’; he understands as it occurs: ‘This is the cessation of suffering’; he understands as it occurs: ‘This is the path leading to the cessation of suffering.’ This is a method coming to which a bhikkhu who is a learner, standing at the level of a learner, understands: ‘I am a learner.’


As made clear later on in that same sutta (not provided here), a learner (sekha) is one who is not an arahant yet. Thus, AN 4.190 and SN 48.53 taken together show that a noble one is not necessarily an arahant. Some suttas also indicate that a sotāpanna would be referred to as 'a noble one':

SN 12.27

ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako diṭṭhisampanno itipi, dassanasampanno itipi, āgato imaṃ saddhammaṃ itipi, passati imaṃ saddhammaṃ itipi, sekkhena ñāṇena samannāgato itipi, sekkhāya vijjāya samannāgato itipi, dhammasotaṃ samāpanno itipi, ariyo nibbedhikapañño itipi, amatadvāraṃ āhacca tiṭṭhati itipī”ti.

This, bhikkhus, is called a noble disciple who is accomplished in view, accomplished in vision, who has arrived at this authentic Dhamma, who sees this authentic Dhamma, who is endowed with a learner's knowledge, a learner's correct knowledge, who has entered the stream of the Dhamma, a noble one with discriminating discernment, one who stands knocking at the door of the Deathless.


Here the expression 'dhamma·sotaṃ samāpanno' quite obviously describes a sot·āpanna. Moreover, SN 56.36 states that one accomplished in view (diṭṭhi·sampanno) understands the four noble truths as they occur, and AN 10.63 explains that one accomplished in view has reached certainty about the Buddha and is at least sotāpannas. Therefore, it can be concluded that the following expressions may be considered equivalent: being an ariya, being a sotāpanna, being accomplished in view (diṭṭhi·sampanno) and understanding the four noble truths as they occur.

♦ The suttas occasionally mention some characteristics of ariyas:

SN 11.25

akkodho avihiṃsā ca, ariyesu ca vasatī sadā

Non-anger and harmlessness always dwell in the noble ones


SN 35.119

sukhaṃ diṭṭhamariyebhi, sakkāyassa nirodhanaṃ

The noble ones have seen as pleasantness the ceasing of personality


♦ Occasionally, the epithet ariya changes the meaning of the related word in a way that goes beyond merely adding to it the notion of 'leading to the end of dukkha'. Thus, noble silence (ariya tuṇhī·bhāva) means the second jhāna:

SN 21.1

‘ariyo tuṇhībhāvo, ariyo tuṇhībhāvoti vuccati. katamo nu kho ariyo tuṇhībhāvo’ti? tassa mayhaṃ āvuso, etadahosi — ‘idha bhikkhu vitakkavicārānaṃ vūpasamā ajjhattaṃ sampasādanaṃ cetaso ekodibhāvaṃ avitakkaṃ avicāraṃ samādhijaṃ pītisukhaṃ dutiyaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati. ayaṃ vuccati ariyo tuṇhībhāvo’ti.

'"Noble silence, noble silence," it is said. But what is noble silence?' Then the thought occurred to me, 'There is the case where a monk, with the stilling of directed thoughts & evaluations, enters & remains in the second jhāna: rapture & pleasure born of concentration, unification of awareness free from directed thought & evaluation — internal assurance. This is called noble silence.'


AN 4.251 & 253, AN 8.67 & 68 state that factual 'declarations' (vohāra) are noble.

♦ The Buddha often redefines certain concepts 'in the discipline of the noble ones' (ariyassa vinaye).

Death (maraṇa) means disrobing, and deadly suffering (maraṇa·matta dukkha) means a certain defiled offence (aññataraṃ saṃkiliṭṭhaṃ āpattiṃ), i.e. a pārājika or a saṅghādisesa āpatti (MN 105, SN 20.10).

The four jhānas are called 'pleasant abidings in the visible world' (diṭṭha·dhamma·sukha·vihāra), e.g. at MN 8.

Singing is wailing, dancing is madness and laughing a long time showing the teeth is childish (AN 3.108).

A poor person 'in the discipline of the noble ones' is one who doesn't have saddhā, hiri, ottappa, vīriya and paññā (AN 6.45).

'The world' (loka) means the five kāma·guṇas (AN 9.38) or whatever is subject to disintegration (paloka·dhamma), at SN 35.67.

'Purity' (or 'purification', soceyya) means the ten kusala kamma·pathas (AN 10.176).

'A thorn' (kaṇṭaka) is whatever in the world has a pleasing and agreeable nature (yaṃ loke piya·rūpaṃ sāta·rūpaṃ), at SN 35.197.

♦ What is ignoble (an·ariya) can be defined as what does not lead to nibbāna:

AN 10.107

etaṃ, bhikkhave, dhovanaṃ hīnaṃ gammaṃ pothujjanikaṃ anariyaṃ anatthasaṃhitaṃ na nibbidāya na virāgāya na nirodhāya na upasamāya na abhiññāya na sambodhāya na nibbānāya saṃvattati.

This 'washing' is inferior, vulgar, belonging to ordinary people, ignoble, not beneficial, and it does not lead to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to awakening, to Extinction.


Sense pleasures are typically ignoble:

MN 66

yaṃ kho, udāyi, ime pañca kāmaguṇe paṭicca uppajjati sukhaṃ somanassaṃ idaṃ vuccati kāmasukhaṃ miḷhasukhaṃ puthujjanasukhaṃ anariyasukhaṃ.

Now, Udāyin, the pleasure and mental pleasantness that arise dependent on these five strings of sensuality are called sensual pleasure, a filthy pleasure, a worldly pleasure, an ignoble pleasure.


SN 56.11 most notably explains that both the pursuit of happiness in sensuality and that of mortification are ignoble:

Yo c·āyaṃ kāmesu kāma·sukh·allik·ānuyogo hīno gammo pothujjaniko an·ariyo an·attha·saṃhito, yo c·āyaṃ attakilamath·ānuyogo dukkho an·ariyo an·attha·saṃhito.

On one hand, the pursuit of hedonism in sensuality, which is inferior, vulgar, common, ignoble, deprived of benefit, and on the other hand the devotion to self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble, deprived of benefit.


At MN 122, the tiracchāna·kathā are said to be ignoble. At AN 6.30, all the following are considered ignoble: the sight of an elephant, a horse, a jewel, or else of a samaṇa or a brahmin of wrong view; the hearing of the sound of a drum, of lutes, of singing, or else of the Dhamma of a samaṇa or a brahmin of wrong view; the gain of a son, a wife, wealth or goods, or else the gain of faith in a samaṇa or a brahmin of wrong view; the training in elephantry, in horsemanship, in chariotry, in archery, in swordsmanship, or else training under a samaṇa or a brahmin of wrong view; the service to an aristocrat, a brahmin, a householder, or else to a samaṇa or a brahmin of wrong view; the recollection of the gain of a son, a wife, or wealth, or else of a samaṇa or a brahmin of wrong view.

♦ The suttas often warn against misconduct towards ariyas.

SN 11.24

yam·ariya·garahī nirayaṃ upeti,
vācaṃ manañca paṇidhāya pāpakan”ti.

He who blames the noble ones,
Having set evil speech and mind, goes to hell.


The following sentence frequently appears in the suttas, as part of the sattānaṃ cut·ūpapāta·ñāṇa formula (available here):

“ime vata bhonto sattā... ariyānaṃ upavādakā... te kāyassa bhedā paraṃ maraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapannā

Those esteemed beings [who were]... revilers of noble ones... at the breakup of the body, after death, have reappeared in a state of loss, in a bad destination, in perdition, or in hell


AN 11.6 explains what would happen to such a person:

AN 11.6

“yo so, bhikkhave, bhikkhu akkosako paribhāsako ariyūpavādo sabrahmacārīnaṃ, aṭṭhānametaṃ anavakāso yaṃ so ekādasannaṃ byasanānaṃ aññataraṃ byasanaṃ na nigaccheyya. katamesaṃ ekādasannaṃ?

“Bhikkhus, when a bhikkhu is one who insults, disparages his fellows in the brahmic life, reviling the noble ones, it cannot be, it is impossible that he will not undergo one or the other of these eleven misfortunes. What eleven?

anadhigataṃ nādhigacchati,
adhigatā parihāyati,
saddhammassa na vodāyanti,
saddhammesu vā adhimāniko hoti,
anabhirato vā brahmacariyaṃ carati,
aññataraṃ vā saṃkiliṭṭhaṃ āpattiṃ āpajjati,
sikkhaṃ vā paccakkhāya hīnāyāvattati,
gāḷhaṃ vā rogātaṅkaṃ phusati,
ummādaṃ vā pāpuṇāti cittakkhepaṃ vā,
sammūḷho kālaṃ karoti,
kāyassa bhedā paraṃ maraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati.

He does not achieve what he has not yet achieved,
he falls away from what he has achieved,
his good qualities are not purified,
he overestimates his good qualities,
he lives the brahmic life dissatisfied,
he commits a certain impure offense,
he gives up the training and returns to the inferior life,
he catches a severe illness,
he goes mad and loses his mind,
he dies confused,
or at the breakup of the body, after death, he reappears in a state of loss, in a bad destination, in perdition, or in hell.



Bodhi leaf





ariya aṭṭhaṅgika magga: [ariya aṭṭha+aṅga+ika magga]

noble eightfold path.

The expression and its factors (aṅgā) are explained in full detail in the Vibhaṅga Sutta:

1. sammā·diṭṭhi

2. sammā·saṅkappa

3. sammā·vācā

4. sammā·kammanta

5. sammā·ājīva

6. sammā·vāyāma

7. sammā·sati

8. sammā·samādhi


SN 45.8

Katamo ca, bhikkhave, ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo? Seyyathidaṃ sammādiṭṭhi, sammāsaṅkappo, sammāvācā, sammākammanto, sammā-ājīvo, sammāvāyāmo, sammāsati, sammāsamādhi.

Now what, monks, is the Noble Eightfold Path? Right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.

Katamā ca, bhikkhave, sammādiṭṭhi? Yaṃ kho, bhikkhave, dukkhe ñāṇaṃ, dukkha-samudaye ñāṇaṃ , dukkha-nirodhe ñāṇaṃ, dukkha-nirodha-gāminiyā paṭipadāya ñāṇaṃ ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammādiṭṭhi.

And what, monks, is right view? Knowledge with regard to stress, knowledge with regard to the origination of stress, knowledge with regard to the stopping of stress, knowledge with regard to the way of practice leading to the stopping of stress: This, monks, is called right view.

Katamo ca, bhikkhave, sammāsaṅkappo? Yo kho, bhikkhave, nekkhamma-saṅkappo , abyāpāda-saṅkappo, avihiṃsā-saṅkappo ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammāsaṅkappo.

And what is right resolve? Being resolved on renunciation, on freedom from ill will, on harmlessness: This is called right resolve.

Katamā ca, bhikkhave, sammāvācā? Yā kho, bhikkhave, musāvādā veramaṇī, pisuṇāya vācāya veramaṇī, pharusāya vācāya veramaṇī, samphappalāpā veramaṇī ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammāvācā.

And what is right speech? Abstaining from lying, abstaining from divisive speech, abstaining from abusive speech, abstaining from idle chatter: This, monks, is called right speech.

Katamo ca, bhikkhave, sammā-kammanto? Yā kho, bhikkhave, pāṇātipātā veramaṇī, adinnādānā veramaṇī, abrahmacariyā veramaṇī ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammā-kammanto.

And what, monks, is right action? Abstaining from taking life, abstaining from stealing, abstaining from unchastity: This, monks, is called right action.

Katamo ca, bhikkhave, sammā-ājīvo? Idha, bhikkhave, ariya-sāvako micchā-ājīvaṃ pahāya sammā-ājīvena jīvitaṃ kappeti ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammā-ājīvo.

And what, monks, is right livelihood? There is the case where a disciple of the noble ones, having abandoned dishonest livelihood, keeps his life going with right livelihood: This, monks, is called right livelihood.

Katamo ca, bhikkhave, sammāvāyāmo? Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu anuppannānaṃ pāpakānaṃ akusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ anuppādāya chandaṃ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṃ ārabhati cittaṃ paggaṇhāti padahati; uppannānaṃ pāpakānaṃ akusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ pahānāya chandaṃ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṃ ārabhati cittaṃ paggaṇhāti padahati; anuppannānaṃ kusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ uppādāya chandaṃ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṃ ārabhati cittaṃ paggaṇhāti padahati; uppannānaṃ kusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ ṭhitiyā asammosāya bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya bhāvanāya pāripūriyā chandaṃ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṃ ārabhati cittaṃ paggaṇhāti padahati. Ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammāvāyāmo.

And what, monks, is right effort? (i) There is the case where a monk generates desire, endeavors, activates persistence, upholds & exerts his intent for the sake of the non-arising of evil, unskillful qualities that have not yet arisen. (ii) He generates desire, endeavors, activates persistence, upholds & exerts his intent for the sake of the abandonment of evil, unskillful qualities that have arisen. (iii) He generates desire, endeavors, activates persistence, upholds & exerts his intent for the sake of the arising of skillful qualities that have not yet arisen. (iv) He generates desire, endeavors, activates persistence, upholds & exerts his intent for the maintenance, non-confusion, increase, plenitude, development, & culmination of skillful qualities that have arisen: This, monks, is called right effort.

Katamā ca, bhikkhave, sammāsati? Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu kāye kāyānupassī viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā, vineyya loke abhijjhā-domanassaṃ; vedanāsu vedanānupassī viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā, vineyya loke abhijjhā-domanassaṃ; citte cittānupassī viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā, vineyya loke abhijjhā-domanassaṃ; dhammesu dhammānupassī viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā, vineyya loke abhijjhā-domanassaṃ. Ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammāsati.

And what, monks, is right mindfulness? (i) There is the case where a monk remains focused on the body in & of itself — ardent, aware, & mindful — putting away greed & distress with reference to the world. (ii) He remains focused on feelings in & of themselves — ardent, aware, & mindful — putting away greed & distress with reference to the world. (iii) He remains focused on the mind in & of itself — ardent, aware, & mindful — putting away greed & distress with reference to the world. (iv) He remains focused on mental qualities in & of themselves — ardent, aware, & mindful — putting away greed & distress with reference to the world. This, monks, is called right mindfulness.

Katamo ca, bhikkhave, sammāsamādhi? Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu vivicceva kāmehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehi savitakkaṃ savicāraṃ vivekajaṃ pītisukhaṃ paṭhamaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati; vitakkavicārānaṃ vūpasamā ajjhattaṃ sampasādanaṃ cetaso ekodibhāvaṃ avitakkaṃ avicāraṃ samādhijaṃ pītisukhaṃ dutiyaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati; pītiyā ca virāgā upekkhako ca viharati sato ca sampajāno sukhañca kāyena paṭisaṃvedeti yaṃ taṃ ariyā ācikkhanti: ‘upekkhako satimā sukhavihārī’ti tatiyaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati; sukhassa ca pahānā dukkhassa ca pahānā pubbeva somanassadomanassānaṃ atthaṅgamā adukkhamasukhaṃ upekkhāsatipārisuddhiṃ catutthaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati. Ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, sammāsamādhi ti.

And what, monks, is right concentration? (i) There is the case where a monk — quite withdrawn from sensuality, withdrawn from unskillful (mental) qualities — enters & remains in the first jhana: rapture & pleasure born from withdrawal, accompanied by directed thought & evaluation. (ii) With the stilling of directed thoughts & evaluations, he enters & remains in the second jhana: rapture & pleasure born of concentration, unification of awareness free from directed thought & evaluation — internal assurance. (iii) With the fading of rapture, he remains equanimous, mindful, & alert, and senses pleasure with the body. He enters & remains in the third jhana, of which the Noble Ones declare, 'Equanimous & mindful, he has a pleasant abiding.' (iv) With the abandoning of pleasure & pain — as with the earlier disappearance of elation & distress — he enters & remains in the fourth jhana: purity of equanimity & mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain. This, monks, is called right concentration.


♦ The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga is most famously introduced at SN 56.11 as the Middle Way (majjhimā paṭipadā), i.e. the path avoiding both hedonism and self-mortification:

SN 56.11

Dve·me, bhikkhave, antā pabbajitena na sevitabbā. Katame dve? Yo c·āyaṃ kāmesu kāma·sukh·allik·ānuyogo hīno gammo pothujjaniko an·ariyo an·attha·saṃhito, yo c·āyaṃ attakilamath·ānuyogo dukkho an·ariyo an·attha·saṃhito. Ete kho, bhikkhave, ubho ante an·upagamma majjhimā paṭipadā tathāgatena abhisambuddhā cakkhu·karaṇī ñāṇa·karaṇī upasamāya abhiññāya sambodhāya nibbānāya saṃvattati.

These two extremes, bhikkhus, should not be adopted by one who has gone forth from the home life. Which two? On one hand, the devotion to hedonism towards sensuality, which is inferior, vulgar, common, ignoble, deprived of benefit, and on the other hand the devotion to self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble, deprived of benefit. Without going to these two extremes, bhikkhus, the Tathāgata has fully awaken to the Middle Way, which produces vision, which produces knowledge, and leads to appeasement, to direct knowledge, to awakening, to Nibbāna.


♦ The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga is also introduced later on in that same sutta as the fourth ariya·sacca:

Idaṃ kho pana, bhikkhave, dukkha·nirodha·gāminī paṭipadā ariya·saccaṃ: ayam·eva ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo, seyyathidaṃ: sammā·diṭṭhi sammā·saṅkappo sammā·vācā sammā·kammanto sammā·ājīvo sammā·vāyāmo sammā·sati sammā·samādhi.

Furthermore, bhikkhus, this is the noble truth of path leading to the cessation of suffering: just this noble eightfold path, that is to say: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.


♦ The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga has its own entire saṃyutta (SN 45), which is rich in similes and explanations.

♦ Each factor (aṅga) of the path is said to lead to the next:


AN 10.103

“sammattaṃ, bhikkhave, āgamma ārādhanā hoti, no virādhanā. kathañca, bhikkhave, sammattaṃ āgamma ārādhanā hoti, no virādhanā? sammādiṭṭhikassa, bhikkhave, sammāsaṅkappo pahoti, sammāsaṅkappassa sammāvācā pahoti, sammāvācassa sammākammanto pahoti, sammākammantassa sammāājīvo pahoti, sammāājīvassa sammāvāyāmo pahoti, sammāvāyāmassa sammāsati pahoti, sammāsatissa sammāsamādhi pahoti.

Having come to rightness, bhikkhus, there is success, not failure. And how, bhikkhus, is it that having come to rightness, there is success, not failure? For one of right view, right thought arises. For one of right thought, right speech arises. For one of right speech, right action arises. For one of right action, right livelihood arises. For one of right livelihood, right effort arises. For one of right effort, right mindfulness arises. For one of right mindfulness, right concentration arises.


A similar progression is also notably found at SN 45.1. AN 7.45 states that all the other seven factors of the path are the 'supports' (upanisa) and 'accessories' (parikkhāra) of sammā·samādhi. MN 117 further explains how the factors interact, according to the following pattern:


MN 117

“tatra, bhikkhave, sammādiṭṭhi pubbaṅgamā hoti. kathañca, bhikkhave, sammādiṭṭhi pubbaṅgamā hoti? micchāsaṅkappaṃ ‘micchāsaṅkappo’ti pajānāti, sammāsaṅkappaṃ ‘sammāsaṅkappo’ti pajānāti, sāssa hoti sammādiṭṭhi.

Therein, bhikkhus, right view is the forerunner. And how is right view the forerunner? One understands wrong thought as wrong thought and right thought as right thought: this is one's right view.

...

...

so micchāsaṅkappassa pahānāya vāyamati, sammāsaṅkappassa upasampadāya, svāssa hoti sammāvāyāmo. so sato micchāsaṅkappaṃ pajahati, sato sammāsaṅkappaṃ upasampajja viharati; sāssa hoti sammāsati. itiyime tayo dhammā sammāsaṅkappaṃ anuparidhāvanti anuparivattanti, seyyathidaṃ sammādiṭṭhi, sammāvāyāmo, sammāsati.

One makes an effort to abandon wrong thought and to acquire right thought: this is one's right effort. One abandons wrong thought mindfully, and acquires and remains in right thought mindfully: this is one's right mindfulness. Thus these three things rotate and circle around right thought, that is, right view, right effort, and right mindfulness.


♦ The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga is not seldom augmented to become a tenfold set, with the addition of sammā·ñāṇa and sammā·vimutti. SN 45.26 seems to indicate that these two factors are relevant only for the arahant, as they are what makes the difference between a sappurisa and someone who is better than a sappurisa (sappurisena sappurisataro).

♦ At SN 55.5, the ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga is what defines sotāpatti, since sota (the stream) is the ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga itself, and a sotāpanna is one who possesses it:


SN 55.5

— “‘soto, soto’ti hidaṃ, sāriputta, vuccati. katamo nu kho, sāriputta, soto”ti?

— It said: 'The stream, the stream', Sāriputta. What now, Sāriputta, is 'the stream'?

— “ayameva hi, bhante, ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo soto

— Bhante, the stream is just this noble eightfold path

...

...

— “‘sotāpanno, sotāpanno’ti hidaṃ, sāriputta, vuccati. katamo nu kho, sāriputta, sotāpanno”ti?

— It said: 'A stream-enterer, a stream-enterer', Sāriputta. What now, Sāriputta, is 'a stream-enterer'?

— “yo hi, bhante, iminā ariyena aṭṭhaṅgikena maggena samannāgato ayaṃ vuccati sotāpanno

— Bhante, whoever is possessed of this noble eightfold path is called a stream-enterer


♦ The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga, if unarisen, does not arise apart from the appearance of a Buddha (n·āññatra tathāgatassa pātubhāvā arahato sammāsambuddhassa, SN 45.14) or the Discipline of a Sublime one (n·āññatra sugata·vinaya, SN 45.15).

♦ At MN 126, the 8 factors of the ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga are presented as a technology of the mind ('a proper method for procuring fruit': yoni hesā phalassa adhigamāya) whose results do not depend on making wishes, but instead rely solely on the laws of nature, which is metaphorically illustrated by how one gets sesame oil by using the right technique (pressing seeds sprinkled with water), how one gets milk (by milking a recently calved cow), butter (by churning curd), or fire (by rubbing a dry, sapless, piece of wood with a proper fire-stick).

♦ The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga gives strength to the mind, as explained in SN 45.27's simile, where it is compared to the stand of a pot that makes it difficult to get knocked over. At SN 45.160, people, powerful or not, wishing to convince a bhikkhu cultivating the ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga to abandon monkhood by offering him wealth will be no more successful than people wishing to change the direction of the Ganges, because his mind is inclined to seclusion.


SN 45.159

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, āgantukāgāraṃ. tattha puratthimāyapi disāya āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, pacchimāyapi disāya āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, uttarāyapi disāya āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, dakkhiṇāyapi disāya āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, khattiyāpi āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, brāhmaṇāpi āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, vessāpi āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, suddāpi āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ariyaṃ aṭṭhaṅgikaṃ maggaṃ bhāvento ariyaṃ aṭṭhaṅgikaṃ maggaṃ bahulīkaronto ye dhammā abhiññā pariññeyyā, te dhamme abhiññā parijānāti, ye dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā, te dhamme abhiññā pajahati, ye dhammā abhiññā sacchikātabbā, te dhamme abhiññā sacchikaroti, ye dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā, te dhamme abhiññā bhāveti.

Suppose, monks, there is a guest-house. Travelers come from the east, the west, the north, the south to lodge here: nobles and Brahmans, merchants and serfs. In the same way, monks, a monk who cultivates the Noble Eightfold Path, who assiduously practices the Noble Eightfold Path, comprehends with higher knowledge those states that are to be so comprehended, abandons with higher knowledge those states that are to be so abandoned, comes to experience with higher knowledge those states that are to be so experienced, and cultivates with higher knowledge those states that are to be so cultivated.

“katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pariññeyyā? pañcupādānakkhandhātissa vacanīyaṃ...

What, monks, are the states to be comprehended with higher knowledge? They are the five groups of clinging...

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā? avijjā ca bhavataṇhā ca...

What, monks, are the states to be abandoned with higher knowledge? They are ignorance and the desire for [further] becoming...

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā sacchikātabbā? vijjā ca vimutti ca...

And what, monks, are the states to be experienced with higher knowledge? They are knowledge and liberation...

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā? samatho ca vipassanā ca.

And what, monk, are the states to be cultivated with higher knowledge? They are calm and insight.


♦ At AN 4.237, the 8 factors of the ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga constitute 'kamma that is neither dark nor bright with neither-dark-nor-bright result, that leads to the destruction of kamma' (kammaṃ a·kaṇhā·sukkaṃ a·kaṇhā·sukka·vipākaṃ, kamma·kkhayāya saṃvattati).

♦ The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga is given various designations. At MN 19, it is called 'The peaceful and safe path to be followed with exaltation' (khemo maggo sovatthiko pīti·gamanīyo). It is often identified with the brahmacariya (e.g. SN 45.6), or with asceticism (sāmañña) such as at SN 45.35, or brahminhood (brahmañña) such as at SN 45.36. At SN 12.65, it is the ancient path, the ancient road traveled by the sammā·Sambuddhā of the past. At SN 35.191, the ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga is compared to a raft to cross over from identity to 'the other shore', which stands for nibbāna. At SN 45.4, after Ānanda sees a brahmin on a luxurious chariot and calls it a 'brahmic vehicle' (brahma·yāna), the Buddha says that is actually a designation for the ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga, along with the 'Dhamma vehicle' (dhamma·yāna) and the 'supreme victory in battle' (anuttara saṅgāma·vijaya). The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga is also called rightness (sammatta, SN 45.21), kusalā dhammā (SN 45.22), the right way (sammā·paṭipada, SN 45.23) and right practice (sammā·paṭipatti, SN 45.31).

♦ The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga is said at AN 4.34 to be the highest (agga) of saṅkhatā dhammā and to bring the highest vipākā.

♦ Ten phenomena are said to be the precursors for the arising of the ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga, the first seven according to the following simile:

sūriyassa, bhikkhave, udayato etaṃ pubbaṅgamaṃ etaṃ pubbanimittaṃ, yadidaṃ, aruṇuggaṃ; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa uppādāya etaṃ pubbaṅgamaṃ etaṃ pubbanimmittaṃ...

This, bhikkhus, is the forerunner and foretoken of the rising of the sun, that is, the dawn. In the same way, bhikkhus, for a bhikkhu this is the forerunner and foretoken of the arising of the noble eightfold path...

In each case, it is said that when a bhikkhu satisfies the condition, 'it is expected that he will develop the noble eightfold path, that he will cultivate the noble eightfold path (pāṭikaṅkhaṃ ariyaṃ aṭṭhaṅgikaṃ maggaṃ bhāvessati, ariyaṃ aṭṭhaṅgikaṃ maggaṃ bahulīkarissati).

1. Mentioned most often is kalyāṇa·mittatā (with the above sunrise simile at SN 45.49). It is most famously said at SN 45.2 to be the entire brahmacariya (sakalam·ev·idaṃ brahmacariyaṃ), since it can be expected from one who develops it that he will practice the ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga, all the more that as we have seen earlier (e.g. at SN 45.6), brahmacariya is also defined as the ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga itself. We find as well a formula reminiscent of the suttas found at the beginning of AN 1:


SN 45.77

nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi, yena anuppanno vā ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo uppajjati, uppanno vā ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo bhāvanāpāripūriṃ gacchati, yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, kalyāṇamittatā.

I do not see even one other thing, bhikkhus, because of which the unarisen noble eightfold path arises and the arisen noble eightfold path goes to the plenitude of its development so much, bhikkhus, as because of favorable friendship.


2. Sīla is also mentioned a few times independently from the sunrise simile, in the context of which it is introduced at SN 45.50 as accomplishment in virtue (sīla·sampadā). Such examples include the following:


SN 45.149

seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, ye keci balakaraṇīyā kammantā karīyanti, sabbe te pathaviṃ nissāya pathaviyaṃ patiṭṭhāya evamete balakaraṇīyā kammantā karīyanti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sīlaṃ nissāya sīle patiṭṭhāya ariyaṃ aṭṭhaṅgikaṃ maggaṃ bhāveti ariyaṃ aṭṭhaṅgikaṃ maggaṃ bahulīkaroti.

Just as, bhikkhus, whatever actions are to be performed with strength are all performed on dependence on the earth, supported by the earth; in the same way, bhikkhus, it is on dependence on virtue, supported by virtue, that a bhikkhu develops the noble eightfold path, that he cultivates the noble eightfold path.


SN 45.150

seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, ye kecime bījagāmabhūtagāmā vuḍḍhiṃ virūḷhiṃ vepullaṃ āpajjanti, sabbe te pathaviṃ nissāya pathaviyaṃ patiṭṭhāya evamete bījagāmabhūtagāmā vuḍḍhiṃ virūḷhiṃ vepullaṃ āpajjanti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sīlaṃ nissāya sīle patiṭṭhāya ariyaṃ aṭṭhaṅgikaṃ maggaṃ bhāvento ariyaṃ aṭṭhaṅgikaṃ maggaṃ bahulīkaronto vuḍḍhiṃ virūḷhiṃ vepullaṃ pāpuṇāti dhammesu.

Just as, bhikkhus, whatever kinds of seed and plant life come to development, growth, and plenitude, all come to development, growth, and plenitude on dependence on the earth, supported by the earth; in the same way, bhikkhus, on dependence on virtue, supported by virtue, a bhikkhu developing the noble eightfold path, cultivating the noble eightfold path, comes to development, growth, and plenitude in [wholesome] mental states.


3. Appamāda is also mentioned a few times independently from the sunrise simile, in the context of which it is introduced at SN 45.54 as accomplishment in assiduity (appamāda·sampadā). Such examples are found at SN 45.139 and SN 45.140.

4. Sammā·diṭṭhi (AN 10.121) or accomplishment in view (diṭṭhi·sampadā, SN 45.53), are mentioned with the sunrise simile as precursors of the path, without surprise since as we have seen above, each path factor leads to the next, and sammā·diṭṭhi stands first.

5. Accomplishment in desire (chanda·sampadā) is mentioned with the sunrise simile at SN 45.51. The Commentary explains it as desire for kusalā dhammā. In a related meaning, the word chanda appears notably in the sammā·vāyāma formula.

6. Accomplishment in self (atta·sampadā), mentioned with the sunrise simile at SN 45.52. The commentary explains the expression as sampanna·citta·tā (accomplishment in mind), which suggests the attainment of samādhi (see adhi·citta·sikkhā). The expression 'atta·ññū hoti' (one who knows himself) may explain the term. At SN 7.68, it is explained as knowing oneself to have saddhā, sīla, learning (suta), cāga, paññā and understanding (paṭibhāna).

7. Accomplishment in appropriate attention (yoniso·manasikāra-sampadā), mentioned with the sunrise simile at SN 45.52.

8, 9 & 10. Vijjā followed by hiri and ottappa (anva·d·eva hir·ottappa) is said to be the forerunner (pubb·aṅgama) in the entry upon kusalā dhammā (kusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ samāpatti) at SN 45.1 and AN 10.105.

♦ As explained earlier at SN 56.11, the ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga is what leads to nibbāna. At SN 45.62, the former leads towards the latter just as the river Ganges slants, slopes, and inclines towards the east (seyyathāpi gaṅgā nadī pācīna·ninnā pācīna·poṇā pācīna·pabbhārā). At SN 45.86, the path is like a tree slanting, sloping and inclining towards the east (seyyathāpi rukkho pācīna·ninno pācīna·poṇo pācīna·pabbhāro) and that could only fall towards that direction if it were to be cut at the foot. It is also said to be the way leading to amata (amata·gāmi·maggo, SN 45.7), or to the unconditioned (a·saṅkhata·gāmi·maggo, SN 43.11).

♦ The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga is part of a set of 37 dhammas which are often listed together (e.g. at AN 10.90, SN 22.81) and are sometimes called the bodhi·pakkhiyā dhammā in popular culture. The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga is also said at SN 45.155 to develop those bodhi·pakkhiyā dhammā.

♦ The enumeration of each path factor is sometimes punctuated by four different formulas. The first one is found for example at SN 45.2 and is in fact mainly used with the bojjhaṅgas, and occasionally with (spiritual) indriyas or balas: 'based upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation, maturing in release' (viveka·nissita virāga·nissita nirodha·nissita vossagga·pariṇāmi).

The second formula can be found at SN 45.4 and says: 'which has the removal of avidity as its final goal, the removal of hatred as its final goal, the removal of delusion as its final goal' (rāga·vinaya·pariyosāna dosa·vinaya·pariyosāna moha·vinaya·pariyosāna).

The third one is found for example at SN 45.115 and says: 'which has the Deathless as its ground, the Deathless as its destination, the Deathless as its final goal' (amat·ogadha amata·parāyana amata·pariyosāna).

The fourth is found for example at SN 45.91 and says: 'which slants towards Nibbāna, slopes towards Nibbāna, inclines towards Nibbāna' (nibbāna·ninna nibbāna·poṇa nibbāna·pabbhāra).

♦ As we have seen above at SN 56.11, the ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga produces ñāṇa·dassana and leads to upasama, sambodhi and Nibbāna. Between SN 45.161 and SN 45.180, it is also said to lead to the direct knowledge (abhiññā), full understanding (pariññā), complete destruction (parikkhaya), and abandoning (pahāna) of various phenomena: the three discriminations (vidhā), i.e. 'I am superior' (‘seyyo·ham·asmī’ti), 'I am equal' (‘sadiso·ham·asmī’ti), 'I am inferior' (hīno·ham·asmī’ti); the three searches (esanā), i.e. the search for sensuality (kām·esanā), the search for [a good] existence (bhav·esanā), the search for the brahmic life (brahmacariy·esanā); the three āsavā; the three bhavā; the three sufferings (dukkhatā), i.e. the suffering from pain (dukkha·dukkhatā), the suffering from Constructions (saṅkhāra·dukkhatā), the suffering from change (vipariṇāma·dukkhatā); the three akusalamulā; the three types of vedanā; kāma, diṭṭhi and avijjā; the four upādānā; abhijjhā, byāpāda, sīla·bbata parāmāsa and adherence to [the view] 'This [alone] is the truth' (idaṃ·sacc·ābhinivesa); the seven anusayā; the five kāma·guṇā; the five nīvaraṇā; the five upādāna·kkhandhas; the ten saṃyojanā.

♦ The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga also leads to the cessation (nirodha) of phenomena: MN 9 lists all the twelve links of paṭicca·samuppāda, the four āhārā and the three āsavā; AN 6.63 additionally speaks of the cessation of kāma and kamma; SN 22.56 mentions the cessation of each of the five upādāna·kkhandhas.

♦ The ariya aṭṭh·aṅg·ika magga is the tool to remove akusalā dhammā. In that respect, MN 3 directly mentions all the 16 upakkilesā (with dosa in place of byāpāda). A number of similes illustrating this point are given in the Magga Saṃyutta: at SN 45.153, akusalā dhammā are given up by the mind like a pot turned upside down 'gives up' its water; at SN 45.156, they are disintegrated like a cloud providing rain disintegrates a dust storm; at SN 45.157, they are dispersed like a strong wind disperses a great cloud giving rain; at SN 45.158, they are like the ropes on a ship that rot under inclement weather.



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ariyasacca: [ariya+sacca] noble truth. The four ariya·saccas are expounded by the Buddha in his very first discourse, the Dhamma-cakka'p'pavattana Sutta. It consists of:

1. dukkha-ariya·sacca
2. dukkha·samudaya-ariya·sacca
3. dukkha·nirodha-ariya·sacca
4. dukkha·nirodha·gāminī paṭipadā-ariya·sacca



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ariyasāvaka: [ariya+sāvaka] noble disciple.



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arūpabhava: [a+rūpa+bhava] existence/ becoming in the formless realm, which is taken as meaning those Brahmā-lokas which are accessible only to those who master at least the fifth jhāna. Arūpa-bhava is one of the three types of bhava.



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asantuṭṭhitā: [a+santuṭṭhitā]

discontent, dissatisfaction.
asantuṭṭha:

discontent, dissatisfied

♦ Sometimes, the adjective a·santuṭṭha is used with a rather neutral connotation, as at SN 35.198, where a bhikkhu is simply not satisfied with the answers given to his question.

♦ Most of the time, the word and its lexical derivatives carry a negative (akusala) connotation:

AN 1.64

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannā vā akusalā dhammā uppajjanti uppannā vā kusalā dhammā parihāyanti yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, asantuṭṭhitā.

I do not see even one other thing, bhikkhus, because of which unarisen unwholesome mental states come to arise, or arisen wholesome mental states come to decline, so much, bhikkhus, as because of dissatisfaction.


AN 1.88

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yo evaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, asantuṭṭhitā.

I do not see even one other thing, bhikkhus, that leads to such great harm as discontent.


AN 1.120

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yo evaṃ saddhammassa sammosāya antaradhānāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, asantuṭṭhitā.

I do not see even one other thing, bhikkhus, that leads to the decline and confusion of the authentic Dhamma so much as discontent.


AN 10.82

“so vatānanda, bhikkhu ‘asantuṭṭho samāno imasmiṃ dhammavinaye vuddhiṃ virūḷhiṃ vepullaṃ āpajjissatī’ti netaṃ ṭhānaṃ vijjati.

It is impossible, Ānanda, that a bhikkhu who is not content will find growth, progress, and completion in this Dhamma-Vinaya.


When the word carries such a connotation, being a·santuṭṭha is explained as follows:

AN 6.84

bhikkhu mahiccho hoti, vighātavā, asantuṭṭho, itarītara-cīvara-piṇḍapāta-senāsana-gilāna-ppaccaya-bhesajja-parikkhārena

a bhikkhu has great desires, is annoyed and is not content with whatever kind of robes, almsfood, lodging, and medicines & provisions for the sick [he gets]


As it is the case above, the word a·santuṭṭhitā or its lexical derivatives are very often juxtaposed with mahicchatā, which can almost be considered a synonym. In the Vinaya, lay people who are offended by bhikkhus' behavior often say:

mahicchā ime samaṇā sakyaputtiyā asantuṭṭhā.

These ascetics sons of the Sakyan are of great desires, not contented.

This happens typically when misbehaving bhikkhus put unnecessary pressure on lay supporters, either by asking more than the strict minimum they need, or by making burdensome requests without prior invitation. Thus, in the origin story to NP 6, the bhikkhu doesn't want to wait until his supporter goes back home to send him some cloth and demands instead one of the garments he is currently wearing. At NP 8, the bhikkhu gives instructions for getting finer cloth to the weaver appointed by his supporters to make his robe, which ends up costing twice as much yarn as they originally planned. At NP 10, the bhikkhu doesn't want to wait till the next day, which ends up costing a fine to his supporter. At Bhikkhunis' NP 11, some bhikkhunis ask the king for a woolen garment (which is considered luxurious).

AN 4.157 maps the concept with others: a·santuṭṭhitā leads to evil desire (pāpika iccha) for recognition (an·avañña) and lābha·sakkāra·siloka, then to wrong effort (vāyama) and finally deceiving families by pretending to be much worthier than one actually is:

AN 4.157

“cattārome, bhikkhave, pabbajitassa rogā. katame cattāro? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu mahiccho hoti vighātavā asantuṭṭho itarītara-cīvara-piṇḍapāta-senāsana-gilāna-ppaccaya-bhesajja-parikkhārena. so mahiccho samāno vighātavā asantuṭṭho itarītara-cīvara-piṇḍapāta-senāsana-gilāna-ppaccaya-bhesajja-parikkhārena pāpikaṃ icchaṃ paṇidahati anavañña-ppaṭilābhāya lābha-sakkāra-siloka-ppaṭilābhāya. so uṭṭhahati ghaṭati vāyamati anavañña-ppaṭilābhāya lābha-sakkāra-siloka-ppaṭilābhāya. so saṅkhāya kulāni upasaṅkamati, saṅkhāya nisīdati, saṅkhāya dhammaṃ bhāsati, saṅkhāya uccārapassāvaṃ sandhāreti. ime kho, bhikkhave, cattāro pabbajitassa rogā.

Bhikkhus, there are these four sicknesses of one gone forth. What four? Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu has great desires, is annoyed and is not content with whatever kind of robes, almsfood, lodging, and medicines & provisions for the sick [he gets]. Having great desires, being annoyed and not content with whatever kind of robes, almsfood, lodging, and medicines & provisions for the sick [he gets], he generates evil desire for recognition and for honors, gain & fame. He rouses, applies and exerts himself to obtain recognition and honors, gain & fame. He craftily approaches families, craftily sits down, craftily speaks about the Dhamma, and craftily holds in his excrement and urine. These, bhikkhus, are four sicknesses of one gone forth.


The sutta then goes on to explain the cure, which consists in forbearance with regards to the elements of nature, animals, other people's words and painful feelings:

“tasmātiha, bhikkhave, evaṃ sikkhitabbaṃ: ‘na mahicchā bhavissāma vighātavanto asantuṭṭhā itarītara-cīvara-piṇḍapāta-senāsana-gilāna-ppaccaya-bhesajja-parikkhārena, na pāpikaṃ icchaṃ paṇidahissāma anavañña-ppaṭilābhāya lābha-sakkāra-siloka-ppaṭilābhāya, na uṭṭhahissāma na ghaṭessāma na vāyamissāma anavañña-ppaṭilābhāya lābha-sakkāra-siloka-ppaṭilābhāya, khamā bhavissāma sītassa uṇhassa jighacchāya pipāsāya ḍaṃsa-makasa-vātā-tapa-sarīṃsapa-samphassānaṃ duruttānaṃ durāgatānaṃ vacanapathānaṃ, uppannānaṃ sārīrikānaṃ vedanānaṃ dukkhānaṃ tibbānaṃ kharānaṃ kaṭukānaṃ asātānaṃ amanāpānaṃ pāṇaharānaṃ adhivāsakajātikā bhavissāmā’ti. evañhi vo, bhikkhave, sikkhitabban”ti.

Therefore, bhikkhus, you should train thus: 'We won't have great desires, be annoyed and not content with whatever kind of robes, almsfood, lodging, and medicines & provisions for the sick [we will get]; we won't generate evil desire for recognition and for honors, gain & fame; we won't rouse, apply and exert ourselves to obtain recognition and honors, gain & fame; we will endure cold, heat, hunger, thirst and the contact with flies, mosquitoes, wind, sun and creeping animals, as well as ways of speech that are ill-spoken and offensive; we will be patient with arisen bodily feelings that are painful, acute, sharp, piercing, disagreeable, unpleasant and threatening life.' This, bhikkhus, is how you should train yourselves.


In this sense, at AN 6.114, asantuṭṭhitā is juxtaposed with mahicchatā and a·sampajañña (lack of thorough comprehension).

It serves as a criterion to know whether one can dwell on his own or should stay amid other monks:

AN 5.127

“pañcahi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bhikkhu nālaṃ saṅghamhā vapakāsituṃ . katamehi pañcahi? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu asantuṭṭho hoti itarītarena cīvarena, asantuṭṭho hoti itarītarena piṇḍapātena, asantuṭṭho hoti itarītarena senāsanena, asantuṭṭho hoti itarītarena gilānappaccayabhesajjaparikkhārena, kāmasaṅkappabahulo ca viharati. imehi kho, bhikkhave, pañcahi dhammehi samannāgato bhikkhu nālaṃ saṅghamhā vapakāsituṃ.

If he is endowed with five qualities, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu is not fit to live away from the Community. What five? He is not content with whatever kind of robe [he gets]; he is not content with whatever kind of almsfood [he gets]; he is not content with whatever kind of lodging [he gets]; he is not content with whatever kind of medicines and provisions for the sick [he gets]; and he dwells absorbed in thoughts of sensuality. If he is endowed with these five qualities, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu is not fit to live away from the Community.


Laypeople must also avoid this kind of asantuṭṭhitā:

Snp 1.6

“sehi dārehi asantuṭṭho, vesiyāsu padussati, dussati paradāresu, taṃ parābhavato mukhaṃ”.

Not satisfied with one's own wives, he is seen among the whores and the wives of others — this is the cause of his downfall.



♦ Although the word is mostly used with this negative connotation, it is also occasionally used with a positive (kusala) connotation. At AN 7.56 the devas who are content with their Brahmā state and do not know a higher escape (nissaraṇa) do not understand what those who are not content with that state and do know something higher may understand:

AN 7.56

ye kho te, mārisa moggallāna, brahmakāyikā devā brahmena āyunā santuṭṭhā... te uttari nissaraṇaṃ yathābhūtaṃ nappajānanti, tesaṃ na evaṃ ñāṇaṃ hoti... ye ca kho te, mārisa moggallāna, brahmakāyikā devā brahmena āyunā asantuṭṭhā... te ca uttari nissaraṇaṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānanti, tesaṃ evaṃ ñāṇaṃ hoti...

Sir Moggallāna, the devas of Brahmā’s retinue who are content with a brahmā’s longevity... and who do not know, as it actually is, an escape higher than this, do not have such a knowledge... But the devas of Brahmā’s retinue who are not content with a brahmā’s longevity... and who know, as it actually is, an escape higher than this, have such a knowledge...



At AN 2.5, asantuṭṭhitā applied to wholesome states (kusalā dhammā) is presented as very important for developing further on the path:

AN 2.5

dvinnāhaṃ, bhikkhave, dhammānaṃ upaññāsiṃ: yā ca asantuṭṭhitā kusalesu dhammesu, yā ca appaṭivānitā padhānasmiṃ.

Bhikkhus, I have come to know two qualities: non-contentment with wholesome states and tirelessness in exertion.



At SN 55.40, being satisfied with the four usual sot·āpattiy·aṅgas leads to not making an effort (vāyama) in solitude (paviveka), and then to successively miss on pāmojja, pīti and passaddhi, and finally dwell in dukkha, which is considered living with pamāda, while not being satisfied with them prompts one to make the effort in solitude and experience successively pāmojja, pīti, passaddhi, sukha, samādhi, the fact that phenomena have become manifest, and finally living with appamāda.

At AN 6.80, the word is interestingly surrounded by related concepts:

AN 6.80

chahi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bhikkhu nacirasseva mahantattaṃ vepullattaṃ pāpuṇāti dhammesu. katamehi chahi? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ālokabahulo ca hoti yogabahulo ca vedabahulo ca asantuṭṭhibahulo ca anikkhittadhuro ca kusalesu dhammesu uttari ca patāreti.

If he is endowed with six qualities, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu attains in no long time greatness and fullness in [wholesome] states. What six? Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu is full of light, full of endeavor, full of enthusiasm, full of dissatisfaction [with wholesome states already attained], he doesn't shirk his task in wholesome states, and he keeps progressing further.



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asappurisa: [a+sappurisa]
bad person.

The word is always contrasted with sappurisa. Bāla is sometimes explicitly mentioned as a synonym:


MN 129

‘bālo ayaṃ bhavaṃ asappuriso’’ti.

‘This individual is a fool, a bad person’.



The term is defined multiple times. We find in the suttas three main ways to define it. According to the micchā·paṭipadā:


SN 45.26

katamo ca, bhikkhave, asappuriso? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco micchādiṭṭhiko hoti, micchāsaṅkappo, micchāvāco, micchākammanto, micchāājīvo, micchāvāyāmo, micchāsati, micchāsamādhi. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, asappuriso”.

And what, bhikkhus, is a bad person? Here, bhikkhus, someone is of wrong view, wrong aspiration, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness and wrong concentration. This, bhikkhus, is what is called a bad person.

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, asappurisena asappurisataro? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco micchādiṭṭhiko hoti, micchāsaṅkappo, micchāvāco, micchākammanto, micchāājīvo, micchāvāyāmo, micchāsati, micchāsamādhi, micchāñāṇī, micchāvimutti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, asappurisena asappurisataro.

And what, bhikkhus, is one who is worse than a bad person? Here, bhikkhus, someone is of wrong view, wrong aspiration, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, wrong concentration, wrong knowledge and wrong liberation. This, bhikkhus, is what is called one who is worse than a bad person.



According to various subsets of the ten akusalā kamma·pathā:


AN 4.204

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, asappuriso? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco pāṇātipātī hoti, adinnādāyī hoti, kāmesumicchācārī hoti, musāvādī hoti, pisuṇavāco hoti, pharusavāco hoti, samphappalāpī hoti, abhijjhālu hoti, byāpannacitto hoti, micchādiṭṭhiko hoti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, asappuriso.

And what, bhikkhus, is a bad person? Here, bhikkhus, someone destroys life, takes what is not given, engages in misconduct regarding [pleasures of] sensuality, speaks falsehood, speaks maliciously, speaks harshly, speaks frivolously, is covetous, has a malevolent mind, is of wrong view. This, bhikkhus, is what is called a bad person.

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, asappurisena asappurisataro? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco attanā ca pāṇātipātī hoti, parañca pāṇātipāte samādapeti, attanā ca adinnādāyī hoti, parañca adinnādāne samādapeti, attanā ca kāmesumicchācārī hoti, parañca kāmesumicchācāre samādapeti, attanā ca musāvādī hoti, parañca musāvāde samādapeti, attanā ca pisuṇavāco hoti, parañca pisuṇavācāya samādapeti, attanā ca pharusavāco hoti, parañca pharusavācāya samādapeti, attanā ca samphappalāpī hoti, parañca samphappalāpe samādapeti, attanā ca abhijjhālu hoti, parañca abhijjhāya samādapeti; attanā ca byāpannacitto hoti, parañca byāpāde samādapeti, attanā ca micchādiṭṭhiko hoti, parañca micchādiṭṭhiyā samādapeti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, asappurisena asappurisataro.

And what, bhikkhus, is one who is worse than a bad person? Here, bhikkhus, someone destroys life himself and incites others to destroy life, takes what is not given himself and incites others to take what is not given, engages in misconduct regarding [pleasures of] sensuality himself and incites others to engage in misconduct regarding [pleasures of] sensuality, speaks falsehood himself and incites others to speak falsehood, speaks maliciously himself and incites others to speak maliciously, speaks harshly himself and incites others to, speaks frivolously himself and incites others to, is covetous himself and incites others to speak harshly, has a malevolent mind himself and incites others to have a malevolent mind, is of wrong view himself and incites others to have wrong view. This, bhikkhus, is what is called one who is worse than a bad person.



According to a particular set of bad qualities:


AN 4.202

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, asappuriso? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco assaddho hoti, ahiriko hoti, anottappī hoti, appassuto hoti, kusīto hoti, muṭṭhassati hoti, duppañño hoti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, asappuriso.

And what, bhikkhus, is a bad person? Here, bhikkhus, someone doesn't have conviction, doesn't have conscientiousness, doesn't have scruple, doesn't acquire learning, is lazy, is of forgetful mindfulness, is of deficient discernment. This, bhikkhus, is what is called a bad person.

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, asappurisena asappurisataro? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco attanā ca assaddho hoti, parañca assaddhiye samādapeti; attanā ca ahiriko hoti, parañca ahirikatāya samādapeti; attanā ca anottappī hoti, parañca anottappe samādapeti; attanā ca appassuto hoti, parañca appassute samādapeti; attanā ca kusīto hoti, parañca kosajje samādapeti; attanā ca muṭṭhassati hoti, parañca muṭṭhassacce samādapeti; attanā ca duppañño hoti, parañca duppaññatāya samādapeti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, asappurisena asappurisataro.

And what, bhikkhus, is one who is worse than a bad person? Here, bhikkhus, someone doesn't have conviction himself and incites others to be without conviction, doesn't have conscientiousness himself and incites others to be without conscientiousness, doesn't have scruple himself and incites others to be without scruple, doesn't acquire learning himself and incites others to not acquire learning, is lazy himself and incites others to be lazy, is of forgetful mindfulness himself and incites others to be of forgetful mindfulness, is of deficient discernment himself and incites others to be of deficient discernment. This, bhikkhus, is what is called one who is worse than a bad person.



The term is also defined or explained at great length in two suttas of the Majjhima Nikāya:


MN 110

asappuriso, bhikkhave, assaddhammasamannāgato hoti, asappurisabhatti hoti, asappurisacintī hoti, asappurisamantī hoti, asappurisavāco hoti, asappurisakammanto hoti, asappurisadiṭṭhi hoti; asappurisadānaṃ deti”.

"A person of no integrity is endowed with qualities of no integrity; he is a person of no integrity in his friendship, in the way he wills, the way he gives advice, the way he speaks, the way he acts, the views he holds, & the way he gives a gift.

“kathañca, bhikkhave, asappuriso assaddhammasamannāgato hoti? idha, bhikkhave, asappuriso assaddho hoti, ahiriko hoti, anottappī hoti, appassuto hoti, kusīto hoti, muṭṭhassati hoti, duppañño hoti. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, asappuriso assaddhammasamannāgato hoti.

"And how is a person of no integrity endowed with qualities of no integrity? There is the case where a person of no integrity is lacking in conviction, lacking in conscience, lacking in concern [for the results of unskillful actions]; he is unlearned, lazy, of muddled mindfulness, & poor discernment. This is how a person of no integrity is endowed with qualities of no integrity."

“kathañca, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisabhatti hoti? idha, bhikkhave, asappurisassa ye te samaṇabrāhmaṇā assaddhā ahirikā anottappino appassutā kusītā muṭṭhassatino duppaññā tyāssa mittā honti te sahāyā. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisabhatti hoti.

"And how is a person of no integrity a person of no integrity in his friendship? There is the case where a person of no integrity has, as his friends & companions, those brahmans & contemplatives who are lacking in conviction, lacking in conscience, lacking in concern, unlearned, lazy, of muddled mindfulness, & poor discernment. This is how a person of no integrity is a person of no integrity in his friendship.

“kathañca, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisacintī hoti? idha, bhikkhave, asappuriso attabyābādhāyapi ceteti, parabyābādhāyapi ceteti, ubhayabyābādhāyapi ceteti. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisacintī hoti.

"And how is a person of no integrity a person of no integrity in the way he wills? There is the case where a person of no integrity wills for his own affliction, or for the affliction of others, or for the affliction of both. This is how a person of no integrity is a person of no integrity in the way he wills.

“kathañca, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisamantī hoti? idha, bhikkhave, asappuriso attabyābādhāyapi manteti, parabyābādhāyapi manteti, ubhayabyābādhāyapi manteti. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisamantī hoti.

"And how is a person of no integrity a person of no integrity in the way he gives advice? There is the case where a person of no integrity gives advice for his own affliction, or for the affliction of others, or for the affliction of both. This is how a person of no integrity is a person of no integrity in the way he gives advice.

“kathañca, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisavāco hoti? idha, bhikkhave, asappuriso musāvādī hoti, pisuṇavāco hoti, pharusavāco hoti, samphappalāpī hoti. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisavāco hoti.

"And how is a person of no integrity a person of no integrity in the way he speaks? There is the case where a person of no integrity is one who tells lies, engages in divisive tale-bearing, engages in harsh speech, engages in idle chatter. This is how a person of no integrity is a person of no integrity in the way he speaks.

“kathañca, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisakammanto hoti? idha, bhikkhave, asappuriso pāṇātipātī hoti, adinnādāyī hoti, kāmesumicchācārī hoti. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisakammanto hoti.

"And how is a person of no integrity a person of no integrity in the way he acts? There is the case where a person of no integrity is one who takes life, steals, engages in illicit sex. This is how a person of no integrity is a person of no integrity in the way he acts.

“kathañca, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisadiṭṭhi hoti? idha, bhikkhave, asappuriso evaṃdiṭṭhi hoti: ‘natthi dinnaṃ, natthi yiṭṭhaṃ, natthi hutaṃ, natthi sukatadukkaṭānaṃ kammānaṃ phalaṃ vipāko, natthi ayaṃ loko, natthi paro loko, natthi mātā, natthi pitā, natthi sattā opapātikā, natthi loke samaṇabrāhmaṇā sammaggatā sammāpaṭipannā, ye imañca lokaṃ parañca lokaṃ sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā pavedentī’ti. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisadiṭṭhi hoti.

"And how is a person of no integrity a person of no integrity in the views he holds? There is the case where a person of no integrity is one who holds a view like this: 'There is nothing given, nothing offered, nothing sacrificed. There is no fruit or result of good or bad actions. There is no this world, no next world, no mother, no father, no spontaneously reborn beings; no brahmans or contemplatives who, faring rightly & practicing rightly, proclaim this world & the next after having directly known & realized it for themselves.' This is how a person of no integrity is a person of no integrity in the views he holds.

“kathañca, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisadānaṃ deti? idha, bhikkhave, asappuriso asakkaccaṃ dānaṃ deti, asahatthā dānaṃ deti, acittīkatvā dānaṃ deti, apaviṭṭhaṃ dānaṃ deti anāgamanadiṭṭhiko dānaṃ deti. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, asappuriso asappurisadānaṃ deti.

"And how is a person of no integrity a person of no integrity in the way he gives a gift? There is the case where a person of no integrity gives a gift inattentively, not with his own hand, disrespectfully, as if throwing it away, with the view that nothing will come of it. This is how a person of no integrity is a person of no integrity in the way he gives a gift.

“so, bhikkhave, asappuriso evaṃ assaddhammasamannāgato, evaṃ asappurisabhatti, evaṃ asappurisacintī, evaṃ asappurisamantī, evaṃ asappurisavāco, evaṃ asappurisakammanto, evaṃ asappurisadiṭṭhi; evaṃ asappurisadānaṃ datvā kāyassa bhedā paraṃ maraṇā yā asappurisānaṃ gati tattha upapajjati. kā ca, bhikkhave, asappurisānaṃ gati? nirayo vā tiracchānayoni vā.

"This person of no integrity, thus endowed with qualities of no integrity; a person of no integrity in his friendship, in the way he wills, the way he gives advice, the way he speaks, the way he acts, the views he holds, & the way he gives a gift, on the break-up of the body, after death, reappears in the destination of people of no integrity. And what is the destination of people of no integrity? Hell or the animal womb.


MN 113

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, asappurisadhammo? idha, bhikkhave, asappuriso uccākulā pabbajito hoti. so iti paṭisañcikkhati: ‘ahaṃ khomhi uccākulā pabbajito, ime panaññe bhikkhū na uccākulā pabbajitā’ti. so tāya uccākulīnatāya attānukkaṃseti, paraṃ vambheti. ayaṃ, bhikkhave, asappurisadhammo ...

"And which is the quality of a person of no integrity? "There is the case where a person of no integrity goes forth from a high-ranking family. He notices, 'I have gone forth from a high-ranking family, but these other monks have not gone forth from a high-ranking family.' He exalts himself for having a high-ranking family and disparages others. This is the quality of a person of no integrity ...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, asappuriso mahākulā pabbajito hoti ... mahābhogakulā pabbajito hoti ... uḷārabhogakulā pabbajito hoti. so iti paṭisañcikkhati: ‘ahaṃ khomhi uḷārabhogakulā pabbajito, ime panaññe bhikkhū na uḷārabhogakulā pabbajitā’ti. so tāya uḷārabhogatāya attānukkaṃseti, paraṃ vambheti. ayampi, bhikkhave, asappurisadhammo ...

"Furthermore, a person of no integrity goes forth from a great family... a family of great wealth... a family of extensive wealth. He notices, 'I have gone forth from a family of extensive wealth, but these other monks have not gone forth from a family of extensive wealth.' He exalts himself for having a family of extensive wealth and disparages others. This is the quality of a person of no integrity ...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, asappuriso ñāto hoti yasassī... lābhī hoti cīvara-piṇḍapāta-senāsana-gilāna-ppaccaya-bhesajja-parikkhārānaṃ... bahussuto hoti... vinayadharo hoti... dhammakathiko hoti... āraññiko hoti... paṃsukūliko hoti... piṇḍapātiko hoti... rukkhamūliko hoti... sosāniko hoti... abbhokāsiko hoti... nesajjiko hoti... yathāsanthatiko hoti... ekāsaniko hoti... paṭhamaṃ jhānaṃ... dutiyaṃ jhānaṃ... tatiyaṃ jhānaṃ... catutthaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati... ākāsānañcāyatanaṃ... viññāṇañcāyatanaṃ... ākiñcaññāyatanaṃ... nevasaññānāsaññāyatanaṃ upasampajja viharati. so iti paṭisañcikkhati: ‘ahaṃ khomhi neva-saññā-nāsaññ-āyatana-samāpattiyā lābhī, ime panaññe bhikkhū neva-saññā-nāsaññ-āyatana-samāpattiyā na lābhino’ti. so tāya neva-saññā-nāsaññ-āyatana-samāpattiyā attānukkaṃseti, paraṃ vambheti. ayampi, bhikkhave, asappurisadhammo.

"Furthermore, a person of no integrity is well-known & highly regarded ... is one who gains robe-cloth, alms-food, lodgings, & medicinal requisites for the sick ... is learned ... is a master of the Vinaya ... is a Dhamma-speaker ... is a wilderness dweller ... is one who wears robes of thrown-away rags... an alms-goer... one who dwells at the root of a tree... a cemetery dweller... one who lives in the open air... one who doesn't lie down... one who is content with whatever dwelling is assigned to him... one who eats only one meal a day ... enters & remains in the first jhāna ... in the second jhāna... the third jhāna... the fourth jhāna... the dimension of the infinitude of space... the dimension of the infinitude of consciousness... the dimension of nothingness... the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. He notices, 'I have gained the attainment of the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, but these other monks have not gained the attainment of the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception.' He exalts himself for the attainment of the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception and disparages others. This is the quality of a person of no integrity.

The sutta doesn't mention the behavior of an asappurisa who would attain saññā·vedayita·nirodha, while it mentions that of a sappurisa who would, which suggests that a person who reaches such a state can no longer be an asappurisa.

♦ An asappurisa can be recognized by the way he relates to his own and his fellows' faults and virtues:


AN 4.73

“catūhi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato asappuriso veditabbo. katamehi catūhi? idha, bhikkhave, asappuriso yo hoti parassa avaṇṇo taṃ apuṭṭhopi pātu karoti, ko pana vādo puṭṭhassa! puṭṭho kho pana pañhābhinīto ahāpetvā alambitvā paripūraṃ vitthārena parassa avaṇṇaṃ bhāsitā hoti. veditabbametaṃ, bhikkhave, asappuriso ayaṃ bhavanti.

"Monks, a person endowed with these four qualities can be known as 'a person of no integrity.' Which four? There is the case where a person of no integrity, when unasked, reveals another person's bad points, to say nothing of when asked. Furthermore, when asked, when pressed with questions, he is one who speaks of another person's bad points in full & in detail, without omission, without holding back. Of this person you may know, 'This venerable one is a person of no integrity.'

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, asappuriso yo hoti parassa vaṇṇo taṃ puṭṭhopi na pātu karoti, ko pana vādo apuṭṭhassa! puṭṭho kho pana pañhābhinīto hāpetvā lambitvā aparipūraṃ avitthārena parassa vaṇṇaṃ bhāsitā hoti. veditabbametaṃ, bhikkhave, asappuriso ayaṃ bhavanti.

"Then again, a person of no integrity, when asked, does not reveal another person's good points, to say nothing of when unasked. Furthermore, when asked, when pressed with questions, he is one who speaks of another person's good points not in full, not in detail, with omissions, holding back. Of this person you may know, 'This venerable one is a person of no integrity.'

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, asappuriso yo hoti attano avaṇṇo taṃ puṭṭhopi na pātu karoti, ko pana vādo apuṭṭhassa! puṭṭho kho pana pañhābhinīto hāpetvā lambitvā aparipūraṃ avitthārena attano avaṇṇaṃ bhāsitā hoti. veditabbametaṃ, bhikkhave, asappuriso ayaṃ bhavanti.

"Then again, a person of no integrity, when asked, does not reveal his own bad points, to say nothing of when unasked. Furthermore, when asked, when pressed with questions, he is one who speaks of his own bad points not in full, not in detail, with omissions, holding back. Of this person you may know, 'This venerable one is a person of no integrity.'

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, asappuriso yo hoti attano vaṇṇo taṃ apuṭṭhopi pātu karoti, ko pana vādo puṭṭhassa! puṭṭho kho pana pañhābhinīto ahāpetvā alambitvā paripūraṃ vitthārena attano vaṇṇaṃ bhāsitā hoti. veditabbametaṃ, bhikkhave, asappuriso ayaṃ bhavanti. imehi kho, bhikkhave, catūhi dhammehi samannāgato asappuriso veditabbo.

"Then again, a person of no integrity, when unasked, reveals his own good points, to say nothing of when asked. Furthermore, when asked, when pressed with questions, he is one who speaks of his own good points in full & in detail, without omissions, without holding back. Of this person you may know, 'This venerable one is a person of no integrity.'



♦ According to AN 2.33, an asappurisa is ungrateful (a·kat·aññū - 'one who doesn't know what has been done') and unthankful (a·kata·vedī - 'one who doesn't feel what has been done').

♦ At AN 2.135, someone who, without knowing well nor investigating (an·anuvicca a·pariy·ogāhetvā), speaks in praise of someone who deserves critic (a·vaṇṇ·ārahassa vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati), or criticizes someone who deserves praise (vaṇṇ·ārahassa a·vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati), is an asappurisa. In the immediately following sutta, the same holds for believing a matter that merits suspiscion (appasādanīye ṭhāne pasādaṃ upadaṃseti) or being suspicious about a matter that merits belief (pasādanīye ṭhāne appasādaṃ upadaṃseti).

♦ At AN 2.137, one who misbehaves (micchā·paṭipajjati) towards his mother or father is an asappurisa, and in the immediately following sutta, the same holds for the Tathāgata or one of his disciples (tathāgata·sāvaka).

♦ At AN 10.61, listening to a teaching that contradicts the saddhamma is caused by association with asappurisā.



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āsava: that which flows (out or on to) outflow and influx.

1) spirit, the intoxicating extract or secretion of a tree or flower.

2) discharge from a sore (AN 3.25).

3) that which intoxicates the mind (bemuddles it, befoozles it, so that it cannot rise to higher things). Impurities/ pollutions/ fermentations/ corruptions of the mind. The Buddha often refers to arahatta as the total destruction of āsavas (āsavakkhaya). Sāriputta lists āsavas as threefold at MN 9:

1. kām-āsava

2. bhav-āsava

3. avijj-āsava

The Sabbāsava Sutta explains in detail how the different types of āsavas are to be eradicated.



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āsavānaṃ khayañāṇa: [āsava khaya+ñāṇa] knowledge of the ending of āsavas, which arises with arahatta. It is one of the three vijjās. The formula defining it is analyzed there.



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asmimāna: [asmi+māna]

the conceit 'I am'.

The term asmi·māna can be considered as a variant form of māna, which constitutes one of the five saṃyojanas that disappear only with arahatta, and one of the seven anusayas. Thus, it is essentially something to get rid of.

♦ In this connection, anicca·saññā applied to the five upādāna·kkhandhas is often presented as the way to remove asmi·māna, e.g.:


SN 22.102

“kathaṃ bhāvitā ca, bhikkhave, aniccasaññā kathaṃ bahulīkatā... sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanati? ‘iti rūpaṃ, iti rūpassa samudayo, iti rūpassa atthaṅgamo; iti vedanā... iti saññā... iti saṅkhārā... iti viññāṇaṃ, iti viññāṇassa samudayo, iti viññāṇassa atthaṅgamo’ti. evaṃ bhāvitā kho, bhikkhave, aniccasaññā evaṃ bahulīkatā... sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanatī”ti.

And how, bhikkhus, is the perception of impermanence developed and practiced often so that it eradicates... all conceit 'I am'? 'Such is Form, such its apparition, such its extinction; such is Feeling... such is Perception... such are Fabrications... such is Consciousness, such its apparition, such its extinction': this is how the perception of impermanence is developed and practiced often so that it eradicates... all conceit 'I am'.


In an equivalent statement, the term asmi·māna is mentioned as applying to the five upādāna·kkhandhas, and the term anicca·saññā is replaced by 'udayabbay·ānupassī' (observing apparition and extinction).


MN 122

pañca kho ime, ānanda, upādānakkhandhā yattha bhikkhunā udayabbayānupassinā vihātabbaṃ. ‘iti rūpaṃ iti rūpassa samudayo iti rūpassa atthaṅgamo, iti vedanā... iti saññā... iti saṅkhārā... iti viññāṇaṃ iti viññāṇassa samudayo iti viññāṇassa atthaṅgamo’ti. tassa imesu pañcasu upādānakkhandhesu udayabbayānupassino viharato yo pañcasu upādānakkhandhesu asmimāno so pahīyati.

There are these five clinging-aggregates where a monk should stay, keeping track of arising & passing away (thus): 'Such is form, such its origination, such its disappearance. Such is feeling... Such is perception... Such are fabrications... Such is consciousness, such its origination, such its disappearance.' As he stays keeping track of arising & passing away with regard to these five clinging-aggregates, he abandons any conceit that 'I am' with regard to these five clinging-aggregates.


As a matter of fact, it is revealed at AN 9.1 that anicca·saññā does not lead directly to asmi·māna·samugghāta (eradication of the conceit 'I am'). Rather, anicca·saññā leads first to anatta·saññā, which is the actual proximate cause for that eradication to take place:


AN 9.1

Aniccasaññā bhāvetabbā asmimānasamugghātāya. Aniccasaññino, bhikkhave, anattasaññā saṇṭhāti. anattasaññī asmimānasamugghātaṃ pāpuṇāti diṭṭheva dhamme nibbānan”ti

The perception of inconstancy should be developed, for the eradication of the conceit 'I am'. In one who perceives inconstancy, bhikkhus, the perception of non-self takes a stand. One who perceives non-self reaches the eradication of the conceit 'I am', Nibbāna in this visible world.


♦ An alternative tool for abandoning asmi·māna is kāyagatāsati:


AN 1.588

ekadhamme, bhikkhave, bhāvite bahulīkate asmimāno pahīyati. katamasmiṃ ekadhamme? kāyagatāya satiyā.

When, bhikkhus, one thing is developed and practiced often, the conceit 'I am' is abandoned. Which one thing? Mindfulness directed to the body.


AN 6.29, which features a unique list of anussatis, provides a more specific information: it is the nine sivathika contemplations that help eradicating asmi·māna:


AN 6.29

so imameva kāyaṃ evaṃ upasaṃharati: ‘ayampi kho kāyo evaṃdhammo evaṃbhāvī evaṃanatīto’ti. idaṃ, bhante, anussatiṭṭhānaṃ evaṃ bhāvitaṃ evaṃ bahulīkataṃ asmimānasamugghātāya saṃvattati.

He compares this very body with it [the corpse]: 'This body is also of such a nature, it will become like this, it is not exempt from that.' This subject of recollection, when developed and practiced often in this way, leads to the eradication of the conceit 'I am.'


♦ We find in the suttas a few illustrative evocations of asmi·māna or its eradication. At SN 35.214, the practitioner is compared to a log drifting on a river that will go all the way to the ocean (which stands for nibbāna), provided it doesn't get stopped on the way. One of the possible obstacles is asmi·māna, which is compared to 'being cast up on high ground' (thale ussādo).

At AN 4.38, through eradication of asmi·māna, a bhikkhu is called 'patilīna', which may mean 'reserved', 'quiet', 'unostentatious', 'unpretentious', and which the commentary explains as 'hidden' or 'gone into solitude'.

At AN 5.71, one who has abandoned asmi·māna is said to be an ariya 'with banner lowered' (panna·ddhajo), 'with burden dropped' (panna·bhāra) and 'detached' or 'unfettered' (visaṃyutta).



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assāda: (apparent/sensory) satisfaction, enjoyment, gratification, sweetness, allure, happiness. Often cited together with ādīnava and nissaraṇa as characteristics to be understood regarding various dhammas: the five upādāna·kkhandhas, kāma, certain diṭṭhis etc. The assāda of a particular dhamma is generally described as the sukha and somanassa which arise on account of it. The assāda of kāma, rūpa and vedanā are explained in detail at MN 13.



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assutavā: [a+suta+vā] uninstructed/ ignorant person - lit: 'one who has not heard/learnt'.



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asubha: [a+subha]

1) (n:) non-beauty, foulness, loathsomeness, digust, ugliness.

2) (adj:) foul, loathsome, disgusting, ugly, impure, unpleasant.

Almost synonymous with paṭikūla. The contemplation of an asubha·nimitta is the way to develop asubha·saññā.

♦ The contemplation of an asubha object is exclusively aimed at removing rāga (e.g. MN 62, AN 6.107) or at removing kāma·cchanda, which is one of the five nīvaraṇas (with the help of an asubha·nimitta, at SN 46.51 and AN 1.16).

♦ In the Aṅguttara Nikāya, the expression 'bhikkhu asubhānupassī kāye viharati' (a bhikkhu dwells contemplating asubha in the body) appears as a synonym for the practice of asubha·saññā (at AN 10.60), often applied specifically to kāya, and generally in conjunction with āhāre paṭikūla·saññī, sabba·loke an·abhirata·saññī, sabba·saṅkhāresu anicc·ānupassī, and maraṇa·saññ[ī]. This set of five factors is said in various synonym ways to lead to nibbāna (e.g. AN 5.69). They can also lead a sick bhikkhu to arahatta (AN 5.121). Alternatively, in some cases they lead only to anāgāmita (AN 5.122).

♦ The expression 'asubhānupassī kāye viharati' is also described at AN 4.163 as participating of a painful mode of practice (dukkhā paṭipadā).

♦ Seeing as subha something which is actually asubha constitutes one of four saññā·vipallāsa (distortions of perception), citta·vipallāsa (perversions of the mind), diṭṭhi·vipallāsa (inversions of views), the other three being the corresponding misunderstanding of aniccā, dukkha and anatta (AN 4.49).

♦ At SN 54.9, the danger in this practice is made evident, as it leads many bhikkhus to commit suicide. It can be inferred that they did not apply yoniso manasi·kāra correctly and thus multiplied their aversion instead of removing rāga or kāma·cchanda. After the incident, the Buddha recommands ānāpānassati·samādhi as a way to gain calm, pleasantness, and allay akusala dhammas.

♦ For further information about asubha practices, see asubha·nimitta and asubha·saññā below.



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asubhanimitta: [asubha+nimitta]

sign of the unattractive, characteristic of foulness. The practice is to apply the mind to something repulsive, either per se (corpses at various stages of putrefaction for example), or to the repulsive aspects of something usually perceived otherwise, such as the body (of which 31 parts are identified, see here) or food. It is worthwhile to note that this practice can be dangerous, as if the mind is not properly endowed with yoniso manasi·kāra, one may instead multiply aversion as it happens at SN 54.9, where many bhikkhus commit suicide. Generally speaking, an asubha·nimitta can also be defined as an object that allows for the practice of asubha·saññā.

♦ At SN 46.51 and AN 1.16, an asubha·nimitta is said to remove kāma·cchanda, which is one of the five nīvaraṇas. At AN 3.69, it is also said to remove rāga.

♦ One practice involving asubha·nimittas is described in most detail in the section on charnel grounds (sivathika) of the Mahā·sati·paṭṭhāna Sutta, although not directly mentioned with this terminology.

♦ For further information about asubha practices, see asubha·saññā below.



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asubhasaññā: [asubha+saññā]

perception of the unattractive, perception of foulness, perception of non-beauty. This practice is explained at AN 10.60: it consists in reviewing 31 body parts.

♦ According to AN 7.49, when one often applies his/her mind to this practice, he/she is automatically repulsed by methuna·dhamma·samāpatti (getting into sexual intercourse).

♦ The seven bojjhaṅgas can be developed in conjunction with asubha·saññā (SN 46.72).

♦ According to AN 7.27, so long as the bhikkhus practice asubha·saññā, only growth can be expected of them, not decline.

♦ In the Aṅguttara Nikāya, asubha·saññā appears almost always with āhāre paṭikūla·saññā, sabba·loke an·abhirata·saññā and maraṇa·saññā. They are often collectively recommended for the sake of understanding or removing rāga (e.g. AN 5.303).

♦ Other perceptions usually associated with asubha·saññā include anicca·saññā, anicce dukkha·saññā, anatta·saññā, ādīnava·saññā, pahāna·saññā, virāga·saññā and nirodha·saññā.



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asura: beings resembling titans or fallen angels. Considered as in a way similar to the devas, but as being in a duggati, and thus living in misery. They are also often described as having a hostile nature and as frequently engaging in war against the devas lead by Sakka. Their leader is called Vepacitti.



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ātāpī:

(adj:) ardent, diligent, serious in effort, zealous.

The term appears most prominently in the Satipaṭṭhāna formulas:


DN 22

bhikkhu kāye kāyānupassī viharati ātāpī sampajāno satimā, vineyya loke abhijjhā-domanassaṃ.

a bhikkhu dwells observing body in body, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having given up covetousness and affliction towards the world.


It is explicitly defined at SN 16.2 in formulas reminiscent of those describing sammā·vāyāma:

“kathañcāvuso, ātāpī hoti? idhāvuso, bhikkhu ‘anuppannā me pāpakā akusalā dhammā uppajjamānā anatthāya saṃvatteyyun’ti ātappaṃ karoti, ‘uppannā me pāpakā akusalā dhammā appahīyamānā anatthāya saṃvatteyyun’ti ātappaṃ karoti, ‘anuppannā me kusalā dhammā anuppajjamānā anatthāya saṃvatteyyun’ti ātappaṃ karoti, ‘uppannā me kusalā dhammā nirujjhamānā anatthāya saṃvatteyyun’ti ātappaṃ karoti. evaṃ kho, āvuso, ātāpī hoti.

And how, friend, is one ardent? Here, friend, a bhikkhu exerts ardor [considering]: 'If unarisen bad, unskillful mental states arise in me, it would lead to [my] misfortune'; he exerts ardor [considering]: 'If arisen bad, unskillful mental states are not abandoned in me, it would lead to [my] misfortune'; he exerts ardor [considering]: 'If unarisen skillful mental states do not arise in me, it would lead to [my] misfortune'; he exerts ardor [considering]: 'If arisen skillful mental states cease in me, this may lead to [my] misfortune.' Thus, friend, he is ardent.


This definition is extended to include the ability to endure extreme dukkha·vedanā at AN 3.50:

“yato kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu anuppannānaṃ pāpakānaṃ akusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ anuppādāya ātappaṃ karoti, anuppannānaṃ kusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ uppādāya ātappaṃ karoti, uppannānaṃ sārīrikānaṃ vedanānaṃ dukkhānaṃ tibbānaṃ kharānaṃ kaṭukānaṃ asātānaṃ amanāpānaṃ pāṇaharānaṃ adhivāsanāya ātappaṃ karoti, ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ātāpī nipako sato sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāyā”ti.

Bhikkhus, when a bhikkhu exerts ardor for the non-arising of unarisen bad, unskillful mental states, for the arising of unarisen skillful mental states, and for enduring arisen bodily feelings that are painful, racking, sharp, piercing, disagreeable, displeasing, threatening life, this is called, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu who is ardent, alert, and mindful for making a correct end of ill-being.


Another example of what being ātāpī means is given at AN 4.11:

“carato cepi... ṭhitassa cepi... nisinnassa cepi... sayānassa cepi, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno uppajjati kāmavitakko vā byāpādavitakko vā vihiṃsāvitakko vā, taṃ ce bhikkhu nādhivāseti, pajahati vinodeti byantīkaroti anabhāvaṃ gameti, sayānopi, bhikkhave, bhikkhu jāgaro evaṃbhūto ‘ātāpī ottāpī satataṃ samitaṃ āraddhavīriyo pahitatto’ti vuccati.

If while walking... while standing... while sitting... while lying down a thought of sensuality, a thought of ill will or a thought of harming arises in a bhikkhu and he does not give in to it but abandons it, dispels it, removes it, and brings it to complete cessation, then while wakefully lying down that bhikkhu is said to be ardent, to fear wrongdoing and to be continually and continuously of aroused energy and resolute will.


And at AN 4.12:

“carato cepi... ṭhitassa cepi... nisinnassa cepi... sayānassa cepi, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno jāgarassa abhijjhābyāpādo vigato hoti, thinamiddhaṃ pahīnaṃ hoti, uddhaccakukuccaṃ pahīnaṃ hoti, vicikicchā pahīnā hoti, āraddhaṃ hoti vīriyaṃ asallīnaṃ, upaṭṭhitā sati asammuṭṭhā, passaddho kāyo asāraddho, samāhitaṃ cittaṃ ekaggaṃ, sayānopi, bhikkhave, bhikkhu jāgaro evaṃbhūto ‘ātāpī ottāpī satataṃ samitaṃ āraddhavīriyo pahitatto’ti vuccatī”ti.

If while walking... while standing... while sitting... while wakefully lying down covetousness and ill-will have ceased in a bhikkhu, dullness and drowsiness are abandoned, mental agitation and worry are abandoned, doubt is abandoned, his energy is aroused relentlessly, his mindfulness is established and unconfused, his body is tranquil and calm, his mind is concentrated and unified, then while wakefully lying down that bhikkhu is said to be ardent, to fear wrongdoing and to be continually and continuously of aroused energy and resolute will.


A list of terms that appear to be related to ātappaṃ karoti and may help gathering the meaning of ātāpī is given at SN 12.87: sikkhā karoti (practice the training), yoga karoti (exert dedication), chanda karoti (stir up the desire), ussoḷhī karoti (make an exertion), appaṭivānī karoti (exert persistence), vīriyaṃ karoti (exert energy), sātaccaṃ karoti (exert perseverance), sati karoti (exert mindfulness), sampajaññaṃ karoti (exert clear comprehension), appamādo karoti (exert heedfulness).


SN 12.87

upādānaṃ, bhikkhave, ajānatā apassatā yathābhūtaṃ upādāne yathābhūtaṃ ñāṇāya sikkhā karaṇīyā... yogo karaṇīyo... chando karaṇīyo... ussoḷhī karaṇīyā... appaṭivānī karaṇīyā... ātappaṃ karaṇīyaṃ... vīriyaṃ karaṇīyaṃ... sātaccaṃ karaṇīyaṃ... sati karaṇīyā... sampajaññaṃ karaṇīyaṃ.. appamādo karaṇīyo.

Bhikkhus, one who does not know, who does not see attachment as it really is should practice the training... exert dedication... stir up the desire... make an exertion... exert persistence... exert ardor... exert energy... exert perseverance... exert mindfulness... exert clear comprehension... exert heedfulness in order to know it as it really is.


Another list is found at DN 3 and adds padhāna, anuyoga and sammā·manasikāra (probably a synonym for yoniso manasikāra):


DN 3

ekacco samaṇo vā brāhmaṇo vā ātappamanvāya padhānamanvāya anuyogamanvāya appamādamanvāya sammāmanasikāramanvāya tathārūpaṃ cetosamādhiṃ phusati

Some renuniciate or brahmin, by means of ardor, by means of effort, by means of dedication, by means of heedfulness, by means of proper consideration, attains such a concentration of the mind


Some suttas help understanding what being ātāpī means, as they explain what may happen when the practitioner is in that state:


SN 36.7

“tassa ce, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno evaṃ satassa sampajānassa appamattassa ātāpino pahitattassa viharato uppajjati sukhā vedanā... dukkhā vedanā. so evaṃ pajānāti: ‘uppannā kho myāyaṃ dukkhā vedanā. sā ca kho paṭicca, no appaṭicca. kiṃ paṭicca? imameva kāyaṃ paṭicca. ayaṃ kho pana kāyo anicco saṅkhato paṭiccasamuppanno. aniccaṃ kho pana saṅkhataṃ paṭiccasamuppannaṃ kāyaṃ paṭicca uppannā dukkhā vedanā kuto niccā bhavissatī’ti! so kāye ca dukkhāya vedanāya aniccānupassī viharati, vayānupassī viharati, virāgānupassī viharati, nirodhānupassī viharati, paṭinissaggānupassī viharati. tassa kāye ca dukkhāya ca vedanāya aniccānupassino viharato, vayānupassino viharato, virāgānupassino viharato, nirodhānupassino viharato, paṭinissaggānupassino viharato, yo kāye ca dukkhāya ca vedanāya paṭighānusayo, so pahīyati.

As a monk is dwelling thus mindful & alert — heedful, ardent, & resolute — a feeling of pleasure... a feeling of pain arises in him. He discerns that 'A feeling of pain has arisen in me. It is dependent on a requisite condition, not independent. Dependent on what? Dependent on this body. Now, this body is inconstant, fabricated, dependently co-arisen. Being dependent on a body that is inconstant, fabricated, & dependently co-arisen, how can this feeling of pain that has arisen be constant?' He remains focused on inconstancy with regard to the body & to the feeling of pain. He remains focused on dissolution... dispassion... cessation... relinquishment with regard to the body & to the feeling of pain. As he remains focused on inconstancy... dissolution... dispassion... cessation... relinquishment with regard to the body & to the feeling of pain, he abandons any resistance-obsession with regard to the body & the feeling of pain.

“tassa ce, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno evaṃ satassa sampajānassa appamattassa ātāpino pahitattassa viharato uppajjati adukkhamasukhā vedanā... yo kāye ca adukkhamasukhāya ca vedanāya avijjānusayo, so pahīyati.

As he is dwelling thus mindful & alert — heedful, ardent, & resolute — a feeling of neither-pleasure-nor-pain arises in him... he abandons any ignorance-obsession with regard to the body & the feeling of neither-pleasure-nor-pain.


For a more refined understanding of the expression and what it may have meant at the time, it is interesting to study related words. We may start by noting that the closest word in Sanskrit is ātapya (आतप्य), meaning 'being in the sunshine'.

1) The first shade of meaning is best illustrated by the verb tapati, meaning 'to shine', as at SN 1.26: 'divā tapati ādicco' (the sun shines by day) or at SN 21.11: 'sannaddho khattiyo tapati' (the khattiya shines clad in armor).

2) The second shade of meaning can be derived from the first by noting that staying where the sun shines in a tropical climate generally turns out to be a hot and unpleasant experience, which may be how tapati comes to refer to the dukkha·vipāka that arises as a result of akusala kamma. Thus, at AN 10.141, the tenfold micchā·paṭipadā is called 'the teaching that causes torment' (tapanīyo dhammo). AN 2.3 provides more detail about the workings of these torments:

“dveme, bhikkhave, dhammā tapanīyā. katame dve? idha, bhikkhave, ekaccassa kāyaduccaritaṃ kataṃ hoti, akataṃ hoti kāyasucaritaṃ; vacīduccaritaṃ kataṃ hoti; akataṃ hoti vacīsucaritaṃ; manoduccaritaṃ kataṃ hoti, akataṃ hoti manosucaritaṃ. so ‘kāyaduccaritaṃ me katan’ti tappati, ‘akataṃ me kāyasucaritan’ti tappati; ‘vacīduccaritaṃ me katan’ti tappati, ‘akataṃ me vacīsucaritan’ti tappati; ‘manoduccaritaṃ me katan’ti tappati, ‘akataṃ me manosucaritan’ti tappati. ime kho, bhikkhave, dve dhammā tapanīyā”ti.

Bhikkhus, these two things cause torment. Which two? Here, bhikkhus, someone has performed bodily misconduct and has not performed bodily good conduct; he has performed verbal misconduct and has not performed verbal good conduct; he has performed mental misconduct and has not performed mental good conduct. He is tormented, [thinking]: 'I have performed bodily misconduct'; he is tormented, [thinking]: 'I have not performed bodily good conduct'; he is tormented, [thinking]: 'I have performed verbal misconduct'; he is tormented, [thinking]: 'I have not performed verbal good conduct'; he is tormented, [thinking]: 'I have performed mental misconduct'; he is tormented, [thinking]: 'I have not performed mental good conduct.' These, bhikkhus, are two things that cause torment.


We also find various instances of words related to tapati, used to refer to dukkha·vipāka and the remorse the wrong-doer experiences:


SN 2.8

akataṃ dukkaṭaṃ seyyo, pacchā tapati dukkaṭaṃ.

Better left undone is a wrong deed, for a wrong deed later brings torment.



SN 2.22

na taṃ kammaṃ kataṃ sādhu, yaṃ katvā anutappati.

An action which, once performed, brings torment is not well done.



Dhp 17

idha tappati pecca tappati,
pāpakārī ubhayattha tappati.
'pāpaṃ me katan'ti tappati,
bhiyyo tappati duggatiṃ gato.

The evil-doer is tormented here and is tormented hereafter,
He is tormented in both [worlds].
He is tormented, [thinking]: 'I have done evil [things]',
And he is tormented even more when gone to a bad destination [after death].



3) The third shade of meaning is also derived from the first, as staying in the sunshine can also be a symbol for making an effort, for example to earn one's living:


AN 5.33

“yo naṃ bharati sabbadā,
niccaṃ ātāpi ussuko.
sabbakāmaharaṃ posaṃ,
bhattāraṃ nātimaññati.

The one who always supports her
Constantly ardent and zealous
The man who brings what she desires,
Her husband she does not despise.


In another example, someone overcome by the three akusala·mūlas does not make an effort to correct the falsehood that is said to him:


AN 3.70

abhūtena vuccamāno ātappaṃ karoti tassa nibbeṭhanāya itipetaṃ atacchaṃ itipetaṃ abhūtanti.

When he is told things that are not factual, he makes an effort to correct it: 'It is not true because of this, it is not factual because of this'.



4) The fourth connotation, stronger, is that of asceticism or austerities.


MN 12

iti evarūpaṃ anekavihitaṃ kāyassa ātāpana-paritāpan-ānuyogamanuyutto viharāmi. idaṃsu me, sāriputta, tapassitāya hoti.

Thus in such a variety of ways I dwelt pursuing the practice of tormenting and mortifying the body. Such was my asceticism.


Those austerities are depicted at MN 51:


“katamo ca, bhikkhave, puggalo attantapo attaparitāpanānuyogamanuyutto? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo acelako hoti muttācāro hatthāpalekhano naehibhaddantiko natiṭṭhabhaddantiko; nābhihaṭaṃ na uddissakataṃ na nimantanaṃ sādiyati; so na kumbhimukhā paṭiggaṇhāti na kaḷopimukhā paṭiggaṇhāti na eḷakamantaraṃ na daṇḍamantaraṃ na musalamantaraṃ na dvinnaṃ bhuñjamānānaṃ na gabbhiniyā na pāyamānāya na purisantaragatāya na saṅkittīsu na yattha sā upaṭṭhito hoti na yattha makkhikā saṇḍasaṇḍacārinī; na macchaṃ na maṃsaṃ na suraṃ na merayaṃ na thusodakaṃ pivati. so ekāgāriko vā hoti ekālopiko, dvāgāriko vā hoti dvālopiko... sattāgāriko vā hoti sattālopiko; ekissāpi dattiyā yāpeti, dvīhipi dattīhi yāpeti... sattahipi dattīhi yāpeti; ekāhikampi āhāraṃ āhāreti, dvīhikampi āhāraṃ āhāreti... sattāhikampi āhāraṃ āhāreti iti evarūpaṃ aḍḍhamāsikaṃ pariyāyabhattabhojanānuyogamanuyutto viharati. so sākabhakkho vā hoti, sāmākabhakkho vā hoti, nīvārabhakkho vā hoti, daddulabhakkho vā hoti, haṭabhakkho vā hoti, kaṇabhakkho vā hoti, ācāmabhakkho vā hoti, piññākabhakkho vā hoti, tiṇabhakkho vā hoti, gomayabhakkho vā hoti; vanamūlaphalāhāro yāpeti pavattaphalabhojī. so sāṇānipi dhāreti, masāṇānipi dhāreti, chavadussānipi dhāreti, paṃsukūlānipi dhāreti, tirīṭānipi dhāreti, ajinampi dhāreti, ajinakkhipampi dhāreti, kusacīrampi dhāreti, vākacīrampi dhāreti, phalakacīrampi dhāreti, kesakambalampi dhāreti, vāḷakambalampi dhāreti, ulūkapakkhampi dhāreti; kesamassulocakopi hoti, kesamassulocanānuyogamanuyutto, ubbhaṭṭhakopi hoti āsanapaṭikkhitto, ukkuṭikopi hoti ukkuṭikappadhānamanuyutto, kaṇṭakāpassayikopi hoti kaṇṭakāpassaye seyyaṃ kappeti; sāyatatiyakampi udakorohanānuyogamanuyutto viharati iti evarūpaṃ anekavihitaṃ kāyassa ātāpanaparitāpanānuyogamanuyutto viharati. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, puggalo attantapo attaparitāpanānuyogamanuyutto.

And what, bhikkhus, is the person who torments himself and pursues the practice of mortifying himself? Here, bhikkhus, a certain person goes naked, rejecting conventions, licking his hands, not coming when asked, not stopping when asked; he does not accept food brought or food specially made or an invitation to a meal; he receives nothing from a pot, from a bowl, across a threshold, across a stick, across a pestle, from two eating together, from a pregnant woman, from a woman giving suck, from a woman lying with a man, from where food was advertised to be distributed, from where a dog was waiting, from where flies were buzzing; he accepts no fish or meat, he drinks no liquor, wine or fermented brew. He keeps to one house, to one morsel; he keeps to two houses, to two morsels;... he keeps to seven houses, to seven morsels. He lives on one saucerful a day, on two saucerfuls a day... on seven saucerfuls a day; he takes food once a day, once every two days... once every seven days, and so on up to once every fortnight; he dwels pursuing the practice of taking food at stated intervals. He is an eater of greens or millet or wild rice or hide-parings or moss or ricebran or rice-scum or sesamum flour or grass or cowdung. He lives on forest roots and fruits, he feeds on fallen fruits. He clothes himself in hemp, in hemp-mixed cloth, in shrouds, in refuse rags, in tree bark, in antelope hide, in strips of antelope hide, in kusa-grass fabric, in bark fabric, in wood-shavings fabric, in head-hair wool, in animal wool, in owls' wings. He is one who pulls out hair and beard, pursuing the practice of pulling out hair and beard. He is one who stands continuously, rejecting seats. He is one who squats continuously, devoted to maintaining the squatting position. He is one who uses a mattress of spikes; he makes a mattress of spikes his bed. He dwells pursuing the practice of bathing in water three times daily including the evening. Thus in such a variety of ways he dwells pursuing the practice of tormenting and mortifying the body. This, bhikkhus, is what is called the person who torments himself and pursues the practice of mortifying himself.


Given on one hand this close proximity of the term ātāpī with the vocabulary of austerity and mortification and on the other the fact that the Buddha recommends being ātāpī (most prominently in the satipaṭṭhāna formulas), and knowing he also rejected self-mortification, in order to understand more precisely what he meant exactly by being ātāpī, it would appear useful to examine in greater details what his wider position was in regards to austerity.

First of all, it should be borne in mind that the Buddha clearly rejects the pursuit of self-mortification in his first recorded discourse, the Dhamma·cakka·ppavattana Sutta:


SN 56.11

“dveme, bhikkhave, antā pabbajitena na sevitabbā. katame dve? yo cāyaṃ kāmesu kāmasukhallikānuyogo hīno gammo pothujjaniko anariyo anatthasaṃhito, yo cāyaṃ attakilamathānuyogo dukkho anariyo anatthasaṃhito.

These two extremes, bhikkhus, should not be adopted by one who has gone forth from the home life. Which two? On one hand, the pursuit of hedonism towards sensuality, which is inferior, vulgar, common, ignoble, deprived of benefit, and on the other hand the pursuit of self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble and deprived of benefit.


But at AN 10.94, the Buddha says he does not reject categorically both "all austerity" and "all ascetics leading the rough life", as it all depends on whether their practice removes unwholesome states and brings about wholesome ones, or not:


— “saccaṃ kira, gahapati, samaṇo gotamo sabbaṃ tapaṃ garahati, sabbaṃ tapassiṃ lūkhājīviṃ ekaṃsena upakkosati upavadatī”ti?

— "Is it true, householder, that Gotama the contemplative criticizes all asceticism, that he categorically denounces & disparages all ascetics who live the rough life?"

— “na kho, bhante, bhagavā sabbaṃ tapaṃ garahati napi sabbaṃ tapassiṃ lūkhājīviṃ ekaṃsena upakkosati upavadati.

— "No, venerable sirs, the Blessed One does not criticize all asceticism, nor does he categorically denounce or disparage all ascetics who live the rough life.

...

... [The Blessed One:]

nāhaṃ, gahapati, sabbaṃ tapaṃ tapitabbanti vadāmi; na ca panāhaṃ, gahapati, sabbaṃ tapaṃ na tapitabbanti vadāmi; nāhaṃ, gahapati, sabbaṃ samādānaṃ samāditabbanti vadāmi; na panāhaṃ, gahapati, sabbaṃ samādānaṃ na samāditabbanti vadāmi; nāhaṃ, gahapati, sabbaṃ padhānaṃ padahitabbanti vadāmi; na panāhaṃ, gahapati, sabbaṃ padhānaṃ na padahitabbanti vadāmi; nāhaṃ, gahapati, sabbo paṭinissaggo paṭinissajjitabboti vadāmi. na panāhaṃ, gahapati, sabbo paṭinissaggo na paṭinissajjitabboti vadāmi; nāhaṃ, gahapati, sabbā vimutti vimuccitabbāti vadāmi; na panāhaṃ, gahapati, sabbā vimutti na vimuccitabbāti vadāmi.

I don't say that all asceticism is to be pursued, nor do I say that all asceticism is not to be pursued. I don't say that all observances should be observed, nor do I say that all observances should not be observed. I don't say that all exertions are to be pursued, nor do I say that all exertions are not to be pursued. I don't say that all forfeiture should be forfeited, nor do I say that all forfeiture should not be forfeited. I don't say that all release is to be used for release, nor do I say that all release is not to be used for release.

“yañhi, gahapati, tapaṃ tapato akusalā dhammā abhivaḍḍhanti, kusalā dhammā parihāyanti, evarūpaṃ tapaṃ na tapitabbanti vadāmi. yañca khvassa gahapati, tapaṃ tapato akusalā dhammā parihāyanti, kusalā dhammā abhivaḍḍhanti, evarūpaṃ tapaṃ tapitabbanti vadāmi.

"If, when an ascetic practice is pursued, unskillful qualities grow and skillful qualities wane, then I tell you that that sort of asceticism is not to be pursued. But if, when an ascetic practice is pursued, unskillful qualities wane and skillful qualities grow, then I tell you that that sort of asceticism is to be pursued.

“yañhi, gahapati, samādānaṃ samādiyato... padhānaṃ padahato... paṭinissaggaṃ paṭinissajjato... vimuttiṃ vimuccato akusalā dhammā abhivaḍḍhanti, kusalā dhammā parihāyanti, evarūpā vimutti na vimuccitabbāti vadāmi. yañca khvassa, gahapati, vimuttiṃ vimuccato akusalā dhammā parihāyanti, kusalā dhammā abhivaḍḍhanti, evarūpā vimutti vimuccitabbāti vadāmī”ti.

"If, when an observance is observed... when an exertion is pursued... a forfeiture is forfeited... a release is used for release, unskillful qualities grow and skillful qualities wane, then I tell you that that sort of release is not to be used for release. But if, when a release is used for release, unskillful qualities wane and skillful qualities grow, then I tell you that that sort of release is to be used for release."


But again, by contrast, at SN 42.12, while still not rejecting categorically both "all austerity" and "all ascetics leading the rough life", the Buddha does seem to reject categorically the fact of 'attānaṃ ātāpeti paritāpeti' (tormenting and torturing oneself), by presenting it as a reason good enough by itself to draw disapproval:


SN 42.12

ekamantaṃ nisinno kho rāsiyo gāmaṇi bhagavantaṃ etadavoca:

Having sat down to one side, Rasiya the headman said to the Blessed One:

— “sutaṃ metaṃ, bhante, ‘samaṇo gotamo sabbaṃ tapaṃ garahati, sabbaṃ tapassiṃ lūkhajīviṃ ekaṃsena upavadati upakkosatī’ti . ye te, bhante, evamāhaṃsu... kacci te, bhante, bhagavato vuttavādino, na ca bhagavantaṃ abhūtena abbhācikkhanti, dhammassa cānudhammaṃ byākaronti, na ca koci sahadhammiko vādānuvādo gārayhaṃ ṭhānaṃ āgacchatī”ti?

— Bhante, I have heard: 'The renunciate Gotama disapproves of all austerity, he categorically criticizes and blames all ascetics leading a rough life.' Those who say this, Bhante... do they speak in line with what the Blessed One has said, do they not misrepresent the Blessed One with what is contrary to fact, do they answer in line with the Dhamma, so that no one whose thinking is in line with the Dhamma would have grounds for criticizing them?

— “ye te, gāmaṇi, evamāhaṃsu... na me te vuttavādino, abbhācikkhanti ca pana maṃ te asatā tucchā abhūtena”.

— Those who say this, headman, do not speak in line with what I have said, and they misrepresent me with what is false and contrary to fact.

...

...

“tatra, gāmaṇi, yvāyaṃ tapassī lūkhajīvī attānaṃ ātāpeti paritāpeti, kusalañca dhammaṃ adhigacchati, uttari ca manussadhammā alamariyañāṇadassanavisesaṃ sacchikaroti. ayaṃ, gāmaṇi, tapassī lūkhajīvī ekena ṭhānena gārayho, dvīhi ṭhānehi pāsaṃso. katamena ekena ṭhānena gārayho? attānaṃ ātāpeti paritāpetīti, iminā ekena ṭhānena gārayho. katamehi dvīhi ṭhānehi pāsaṃso? kusalañca dhammaṃ adhigacchatīti, iminā paṭhamena ṭhānena pāsaṃso. uttari ca manussadhammā alamariyañāṇadassanavisesaṃ sacchikarotīti, iminā dutiyena ṭhānena pāsaṃso.

Here, headman, regarding the ascetic leading a rough life who torments and tortures himself, yet achieves a wholesome state and realizes a supra-human state, an attainment in knowledge and vision that is suitable to the noble ones, this ascetic leading a rough life, headman, may be disapproved of on one ground and praised on two grounds. And what is the one ground on which he may be disapproved of? He torments and tortures himself: this is the one ground on which he may be disapproved of. And what are the two grounds on which he may be praised? He achieves a wholesome state: this is the first ground on which he may be praised. He realizes a supra-human state, an attainment in knowledge and vision that is suitable to the noble ones: this is the second ground on which he may be praised.


Yet the exact same combination of verbs, 'ātāpeti paritāpeti' (meaning here to heat and burn), is also used (although with a different connotation) at MN 101 in a simile illustrating a recommended kind of unpleasant practice:


MN 101

“kathañca, bhikkhave, saphalo upakkamo hoti, saphalaṃ padhānaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu na heva anaddhabhūtaṃ attānaṃ dukkhena addhabhāveti, dhammikañca sukhaṃ na pariccajati, tasmiñca sukhe anadhimucchito hoti. so evaṃ pajānāti: ‘imassa kho me dukkhanidānassa saṅkhāraṃ padahato saṅkhārappadhānā virāgo hoti, imassa pana me dukkhanidānassa ajjhupekkhato upekkhaṃ bhāvayato virāgo hotī’ti. so yassa hi khvāssa dukkhanidānassa saṅkhāraṃ padahato saṅkhārappadhānā virāgo hoti, saṅkhāraṃ tattha padahati. yassa panassa dukkhanidānassa ajjhupekkhato upekkhaṃ bhāvayato virāgo hoti, upekkhaṃ tattha bhāveti. tassa tassa dukkhanidānassa saṅkhāraṃ padahato saṅkhārappadhānā virāgo hoti. evampissa taṃ dukkhaṃ nijjiṇṇaṃ hoti. tassa tassa dukkhanidānassa ajjhupekkhato upekkhaṃ bhāvayato virāgo hoti. evampissa taṃ dukkhaṃ nijjiṇṇaṃ hoti.

"And how is striving fruitful, how is exertion fruitful? There is the case where a monk, when not loaded down, does not load himself down with pain, nor does he reject pleasure that accords with the Dhamma, although he is not fixated on that pleasure. He discerns that 'When I exert a [physical, verbal, or mental] fabrication against this cause of stress, then from the fabrication of exertion there is dispassion. When I look on with equanimity at that cause of stress, then from the development of equanimity there is dispassion.' So he exerts a fabrication against the cause of stress where there comes dispassion from the fabrication of exertion, and develops equanimity with regard to the cause of stress where there comes dispassion from the development of equanimity. Thus the stress coming from the cause of stress for which there is dispassion through the fabrication of exertion is exhausted & the stress resulting from the cause of stress for which there is dispassion through the development of equanimity is exhausted.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, puriso itthiyā sāratto paṭibaddhacitto tibbacchando tibbāpekkho. so taṃ itthiṃ passeyya aññena purisena saddhiṃ santiṭṭhantiṃ sallapantiṃ sañjagghantiṃ saṃhasantiṃ. taṃ kiṃ maññatha, bhikkhave, api nu tassa purisassa amuṃ itthiṃ disvā aññena purisena saddhiṃ santiṭṭhantiṃ sallapantiṃ sañjagghantiṃ saṃhasantiṃ uppajjeyyuṃ soka-parideva-dukkha-domanass-ūpāyāsā”ti?

"Suppose that a man is in love with a woman, his mind ensnared with fierce desire, fierce passion. He sees her standing with another man, chatting, joking, & laughing. What do you think, monks: As he sees her standing with another man, chatting, joking, & laughing, would sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair arise in him?"

— “evaṃ, bhante”.

— "Yes, lord.

— “taṃ kissa hetu”?

— Why is that?

— “amu hi, bhante, puriso amussā itthiyā sāratto paṭibaddhacitto tibbacchando tibbāpekkho... soka-parideva-dukkha-domanass-ūpāyāsā”ti.

— Because he is in love with her, his mind ensnared with fierce desire, fierce passion... sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair would arise in him.

— “atha kho, bhikkhave, tassa purisassa evamassa: ‘ahaṃ kho amussā itthiyā sāratto paṭibaddhacitto tibbacchando tibbāpekkho. tassa me amuṃ itthiṃ disvā aññena purisena saddhiṃ santiṭṭhantiṃ sallapantiṃ sañjagghantiṃ saṃhasantiṃ uppajjanti sokaparidevadukkhadomanassūpāyāsā. yaṃnūnāhaṃ yo me amussā itthiyā chandarāgo taṃ pajaheyyan’ti. so yo amussā itthiyā chandarāgo taṃ pajaheyya. so taṃ itthiṃ passeyya aparena samayena aññena purisena saddhiṃ santiṭṭhantiṃ sallapantiṃ sañjagghantiṃ saṃhasantiṃ. taṃ kiṃ maññatha, bhikkhave, api nu tassa purisassa amuṃ itthiṃ disvā aññena purisena saddhiṃ santiṭṭhantiṃ sallapantiṃ sañjagghantiṃ saṃhasantiṃ uppajjeyyuṃ sokaparidevadukkhadomanassūpāyāsā”ti?

— "Now suppose the thought were to occur to him, 'I am in love with this woman, my mind ensnared with fierce desire, fierce passion. When I see her standing with another man, chatting, joking, & laughing, then sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair arise within me. Why don't I abandon my desire & passion for that woman?' So he abandons his desire & passion for that woman, and afterwards sees her standing with another man, chatting, joking, & laughing. What do you think, monks: As he sees her standing with another man, chatting, joking, & laughing, would sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair arise in him?"

— “no hetaṃ, bhante”.

— "No, lord.

— “taṃ kissa hetu”?

— Why is that?

— “amu hi, bhante, puriso amussā itthiyā virāgo. tasmā taṃ itthiṃ disvā aññena purisena saddhiṃ santiṭṭhantiṃ sallapantiṃ sañjagghantiṃ saṃhasantiṃ na uppajjeyyuṃ sokaparidevadukkhadomanassūpāyāsā”ti.

— He is dispassionate toward that woman. As he sees her standing with another man, chatting, joking, & laughing, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair would not arise in him.

— “evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu na heva anaddhabhūtaṃ attānaṃ dukkhena addhabhāveti, dhammikañca sukhaṃ na pariccajati, tasmiñca sukhe anadhimucchito hoti. so evaṃ pajānāti: ‘imassa kho me dukkhanidānassa saṅkhāraṃ padahato saṅkhārappadhānā virāgo hoti, imassa pana me dukkhanidānassa ajjhupekkhato upekkhaṃ bhāvayato virāgo hotī’ti. so yassa hi khvāssa dukkhanidānassa saṅkhāraṃ padahato saṅkhārappadhānā virāgo hoti, saṅkhāraṃ tattha padahati; yassa panassa dukkhanidānassa ajjhupekkhato upekkhaṃ bhāvayato virāgo hoti, upekkhaṃ tattha bhāveti. tassa tassa dukkhanidānassa saṅkhāraṃ padahato saṅkhārappadhānā virāgo hoti: evampissa taṃ dukkhaṃ nijjiṇṇaṃ hoti. tassa tassa dukkhanidānassa ajjhupekkhato upekkhaṃ bhāvayato virāgo hoti: evampissa taṃ dukkhaṃ nijjiṇṇaṃ hoti. evampi, bhikkhave, saphalo upakkamo hoti, saphalaṃ padhānaṃ.

— "In the same way, the monk, when not loaded down, does not load himself down with pain, nor does he reject pleasure that accords with the Dhamma, although he is not infatuated with that pleasure. He discerns that 'When I exert a [physical, verbal, or mental] fabrication against this cause of stress, then from the fabrication of exertion there is dispassion. When I look on with equanimity at that cause of stress, then from the development of equanimity there is dispassion.' So he exerts a fabrication against the cause of stress where there comes dispassion from the fabrication of exertion, and develops equanimity with regard to the cause of stress where there comes dispassion from the development of equanimity. Thus the stress coming from the cause of stress for which there is dispassion through the fabrication of exertion is exhausted & the stress resulting from the cause of stress for which there is dispassion through the development of equanimity is exhausted. This, bhikkhus, is how striving is fruitful, how exertion is fruitful.

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bhikkhu iti paṭisañcikkhati: ‘yathāsukhaṃ kho me viharato akusalā dhammā abhivaḍḍhanti, kusalā dhammā parihāyanti; dukkhāya pana me attānaṃ padahato akusalā dhammā parihāyanti, kusalā dhammā abhivaḍḍhanti. yaṃnūnāhaṃ dukkhāya attānaṃ padaheyyan’ti. so dukkhāya attānaṃ padahati. tassa dukkhāya attānaṃ padahato akusalā dhammā parihāyanti kusalā dhammā abhivaḍḍhanti. so na aparena samayena dukkhāya attānaṃ padahati. taṃ kissa hetu? yassa hi so, bhikkhave, bhikkhu atthāya dukkhāya attānaṃ padaheyya svāssa attho abhinipphanno hoti. tasmā na aparena samayena dukkhāya attānaṃ padahati.

"Furthermore, the monk notices this: 'When I live according to my pleasure, unskillful mental qualities increase in me & skillful qualities decline. When I exert myself with stress & pain, though, unskillful qualities decline in me & skillful qualities increase. Why don't I exert myself with stress & pain?' So he exerts himself with stress & pain, and while he is exerting himself with stress & pain, unskillful qualities decline in him, & skillful qualities increase. Then at a later time he would no longer exert himself with stress & pain. Why is that? Because he has attained the goal for which he was exerting himself with stress & pain. That is why, at a later time, he would no longer exert himself with stress & pain.

seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, usukāro tejanaṃ dvīsu alātesu ātāpeti paritāpeti ujuṃ karoti kammaniyaṃ. yato kho, bhikkhave, usukārassa tejanaṃ dvīsu alātesu ātāpitaṃ hoti paritāpitaṃ ujuṃ kataṃ kammaniyaṃ, na so taṃ aparena samayena usukāro tejanaṃ dvīsu alātesu ātāpeti paritāpeti ujuṃ karoti kammaniyaṃ. taṃ kissa hetu? yassa hi so, bhikkhave, atthāya usukāro tejanaṃ dvīsu alātesu ātāpeyya paritāpeyya ujuṃ kareyya kammaniyaṃ svāssa attho abhinipphanno hoti. tasmā na aparena samayena usukāro tejanaṃ dvīsu alātesu ātāpeti paritāpeti ujuṃ karoti kammaniyaṃ.

"Suppose a fletcher were to heat & warm an arrow shaft between two flames, making it straight & pliable. Then at a later time he would no longer heat & warm the shaft between two flames, making it straight & pliable. Why is that? Because he has attained the goal for which he was heating & warming the shaft. That is why at a later time he would no longer heat & warm the shaft between two flames, making it straight & pliable.

evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu iti paṭisañcikkhati: ‘yathāsukhaṃ kho me viharato akusalā dhammā abhivaḍḍhanti, kusalā dhammā parihāyanti; dukkhāya pana me attānaṃ padahato akusalā dhammā parihāyanti, kusalā dhammā abhivaḍḍhanti. yaṃnūnāhaṃ dukkhāya attānaṃ padaheyyan’ti. so dukkhāya attānaṃ padahati. tassa dukkhāya attānaṃ padahato akusalā dhammā parihāyanti, kusalā dhammā abhivaḍḍhanti. so na aparena samayena dukkhāya attānaṃ padahati. taṃ kissa hetu? yassa hi so, bhikkhave, bhikkhu atthāya dukkhāya attānaṃ padaheyya svāssa attho abhinipphanno hoti. tasmā na aparena samayena dukkhāya attānaṃ padahati. evampi, bhikkhave, saphalo upakkamo hoti, saphalaṃ padhānaṃ.

"In the same way, the monk notices this: 'When I live according to my pleasure, unskillful mental qualities increase in me & skillful qualities decline. When I exert myself with stress & pain, though, unskillful qualities decline in me & skillful qualities increase. Why don't I exert myself with stress & pain?' So he exerts himself with stress & pain, and while he is exerting himself with stress & pain, unskillful qualities decline in him, & skillful qualities increase. Then at a later time he would no longer exert himself with stress & pain. Why is that? Because he has attained the goal for which he was exerting himself with stress & pain. That is why, at a later time, he would no longer exert himself with stress & pain. This is how striving is fruitful, how exertion is fruitful.


Examples of some inherently unpleasant practices are mentioned elsewhere:


AN 4.163

“katamā ca, bhikkhave, dukkhā paṭipadā dandhābhiññā? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu asubhānupassī kāye viharati, āhāre paṭikūlasaññī, sabbaloke anabhiratisaññī, sabbasaṅkhāresu aniccānupassī; maraṇasaññā kho panassa ajjhattaṃ sūpaṭṭhitā hoti.

"And which is painful practice ... ? There is the case where a monk remains focused on unattractiveness with regard to the body, percipient of loathsomeness with regard to food, percipient of non-delight with regard to the entire world, (and) focused on inconstancy with regard to all fabrications. The perception of death is well established within him.


A reason why some practices may become unpleasant is also mentioned at AN 4.162:


“katamā ca, bhikkhave, dukkhā paṭipadā ... ? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco pakatiyāpi tibbarāgajātiko hoti, abhikkhaṇaṃ rāgajaṃ dukkhaṃ domanassaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti. pakatiyāpi tibbadosajātiko hoti, abhikkhaṇaṃ dosajaṃ dukkhaṃ domanassaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti. pakatiyāpi tibbamohajātiko hoti, abhikkhaṇaṃ mohajaṃ dukkhaṃ domanassaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti.

"And which is painful practice ... ? There is the case where a certain individual is normally of an intensely passionate nature. He perpetually experiences pain & distress born of passion. Or he is normally of an intensely aversive nature. He perpetually experiences pain & distress born of aversion. Or he is normally of an intensely deluded nature. He perpetually experiences pain & distress born of delusion.


The Buddha also goes so far as to accept the appellation 'one who tortures [himself]' (tapassī), saying that what he has tortured were actually akusala dhammas:


AN 8.12

“katamo ca, sīha, pariyāyo, yena maṃ pariyāyena sammā vadamāno vadeyya: ‘tapassī samaṇo gotamo, tapassitāya dhammaṃ deseti, tena ca sāvake vinetī’ti? tapanīyāhaṃ, sīha, pāpake akusale dhamme vadāmi kāyaduccaritaṃ vacīduccaritaṃ manoduccaritaṃ. yassa kho, sīha, tapanīyā pāpakā akusalā dhammā pahīnā ucchinnamūlā tālāvatthukatā anabhāvaṃkatā āyatiṃ anuppādadhammā, tamahaṃ ‘tapassī’ti vadāmi. tathāgatassa kho, sīha, tapanīyā pāpakā akusalā dhammā pahīnā ucchinnamūlā tālāvatthukatā anabhāvaṃkatā āyatiṃ anuppādadhammā. ayaṃ kho, sīha, pariyāyo, yena maṃ pariyāyena sammā vadamāno vadeyya: ‘tapassī samaṇo gotamo, tapassitāya dhammaṃ deseti, tena ca sāvake vinetī’”ti.

And what, Siha, is the line of reasoning by which one speaking rightly could say of me: 'The renunciate Gotama is one who tortures, he professes a teaching of torture and instructs his disciples accordingly'? I say, Siha, that bad, unwholesome states, bodily misconduct, verbal misconduct and mental misconduct are to be tortured. I say that one who has abandoned the bad, unwholesome states that are to be tortured, cut them off at their root, made them like a palmyra stump, annihilated them, so that they are unable to arise again in the future, is one who tortures himself. The Tathagata has abandoned the bad, unwholesome states that are to be tortured, cut them off at their root, made them like a palmyra stump, annihilated them, so that they are unable to arise again in the future. This is the line of reasoning by which one speaking rightly could say of me: 'The renunciate Gotama is one who tortures himself, he professes a teaching of torture and instructs his disciples accordingly'.


So we may try to conclude here that what the Buddha rejected was the performance of unpleasant practices that would not help removing unwholesome states and developing wholesome ones (AN 10.94), or even if they do have that effect, the performance of unpleasant practices for themselves, as a way of 'rough life' (lūkhajīvita, SN 42.12). But even the right type of asceticism has to be undertaken in a balanced way, to avoid having it ending up developing unwholesome states:


AN 6.55

— “nanu te, soṇa, rahogatassa paṭisallīnassa evaṃ cetaso parivitakko udapādi: ‘ye kho keci bhagavato sāvakā āraddhavīriyā viharanti, ahaṃ tesaṃ aññataro. atha ca pana me na anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimuccati, saṃvijjanti kho pana me kule bhogā, sakkā bhogā ca bhuñjituṃ puññāni ca kātuṃ. yaṃnūnāhaṃ sikkhaṃ paccakkhāya hīnāyāvattitvā bhoge ca bhuñjeyyaṃ puññāni ca kareyyan’”ti?

— "Just now, as you were meditating in seclusion, didn't this train of thought appear to your awareness: 'Of the Blessed One's disciples who have aroused their persistence, I am one, but my mind is not released from the fermentations through lack of clinging/sustenance. Now, my family has enough wealth that it would be possible to enjoy wealth & make merit. What if I were to disavow the training, return to the lower life, enjoy wealth, & make merit?'"

— “evaṃ, bhante”.

— "Yes, lord."

— “taṃ kiṃ maññasi, soṇa, kusalo tvaṃ pubbe agāriyabhūto vīṇāya tantissare”ti?

— "Now what do you think, Sona. Before, when you were a house-dweller, were you skilled at playing the vina?"

— “evaṃ, bhante”.

— "Yes, lord."

— “taṃ kiṃ maññasi, soṇa, yadā te vīṇāya tantiyo accāyatā honti, api nu te vīṇā tasmiṃ samaye saravatī vā hoti kammaññā vā”ti?

— "And what do you think: when the strings of your vina were too taut, was your vina in tune & playable?"

— “no hetaṃ, bhante”.

— "No, lord."

— “taṃ kiṃ maññasi, soṇa, yadā te vīṇāya tantiyo atisithilā honti, api nu te vīṇā tasmiṃ samaye saravatī vā hoti kammaññā vā”ti?

— "And what do you think: when the strings of your vina were too loose, was your vina in tune & playable?"

— “no hetaṃ, bhante”.

— "No, lord."

— “yadā pana te, soṇa, vīṇāya tantiyo na accāyatā honti nātisithilā same guṇe patiṭṭhitā, api nu te vīṇā tasmiṃ samaye saravatī vā hoti kammaññā vā”ti?

— "And what do you think: when the strings of your vina were neither too taut nor too loose, but tuned to be right on pitch, was your vina in tune & playable?"

— “evaṃ, bhante”.

— "Yes, lord."

— “evamevaṃ kho, soṇa, accāraddhavīriyaṃ uddhaccāya saṃvattati, atisithilavīriyaṃ kosajjāya saṃvattati. tasmātiha tvaṃ, soṇa, vīriyasamathaṃ adhiṭṭhahaṃ, indriyānañca samataṃ paṭivijjha, tattha ca nimittaṃ gaṇhāhī”ti.

— "In the same way, Sona, over-aroused persistence leads to restlessness, overly slack persistence leads to laziness. Thus you should determine the right pitch for your persistence, attune the pitch of the [five] faculties [to that], and there pick up your theme."



It may also be important to note that being ātāpī does not necessarily refer to unpleasant practice, since it can constitute the basis to enter the jhānas:


SN 48.40

idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno appamattassa ātāpino pahitattassa viharato uppajjati dukkhindriyaṃ. so evaṃ pajānāti: ‘uppannaṃ kho me idaṃ dukkhindriyaṃ, tañca kho sanimittaṃ sanidānaṃ sasaṅkhāraṃ sappaccayaṃ. tañca animittaṃ anidānaṃ asaṅkhāraṃ appaccayaṃ dukkhindriyaṃ uppajjissatīti: netaṃ ṭhānaṃ vijjati’. so dukkhindriyañca pajānāti, dukkhindriyasamudayañca pajānāti, dukkhindriyanirodhañca pajānāti, yattha cuppannaṃ dukkhindriyaṃ aparisesaṃ nirujjhati tañca pajānāti. kattha cuppannaṃ dukkhindriyaṃ aparisesaṃ nirujjhati? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu vivicceva kāmehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehi savitakkaṃ savicāraṃ vivekajaṃ pītisukhaṃ paṭhamaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati: ettha cuppannaṃ dukkhindriyaṃ aparisesaṃ nirujjhati. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, ‘bhikkhu aññāsi dukkhindriyassa nirodhaṃ, tadatthāya cittaṃ upasaṃharati’”.

Here, bhikkhus, while a bhikkhu is remaining heedful, ardent and striving, the pain faculty arises. He understands thus: 'The pain faculty has arisen in me; it possesses a feature, a cause, a construction, a condition. It is impossible that the pain faculty would arise without a feature, a cause, a construction, a condition'. He understands the pain faculty, he understands its origin, he understands its cessation, and he understands where the arisen pain faculty ceases completely. And where does the pain faculty cease completely? Here, bhikkhous, a bhikkhu, detached from sensuality, detached from unwholesome states, having entered in the first jhāna, remains therein, with thoughts, with thought processes, exaltation and well-being engendered by detachment: here the arisen pain faculty ceases completely. This is called, bhikkhus, 'a bhikkhu who knows the cessation of the pain faculty, and who directs his mind to that end.'


The same is then repeated about domanass·indriya, sukh·indriya, somanass·indriya, and upekkh·indriya, respectively about the second, third, fourth jhānas and saññā·vedayita·nirodha. At MN 19, the same expression appamattassa ātāpino pahitattassa viharato (remaining heedful, ardent and striving) is similarly used to describe the state in which the Buddha was when he reached the three vijjās just before his awakening.



Bodhi leaf





attā: self, ego, soul, personality, individuality. This term actually designates an illusion, since all phenomena are anattā.



Bodhi leaf





attavādupādāna: [attā+vāda+upādāna] clinging to the belief in self. Such beliefs are explained in the Brahmajāla Sutta (DN 1), in which 53 out of the 62 views examined relate to the belief in self (views n°9 to 16 are not included). It also constitutes one of the four items that come in the stock definition of upādāna.

This attachment is compared to a leash:


SN 22.99

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, sā gaddulabaddho daḷhe khīle vā thambhe vā upanibaddho tameva khīlaṃ vā thambhaṃ vā anuparidhāvati anuparivattati; evameva kho, bhikkhave, assutavā puthujjano ariyānaṃ adassāvī ariyadhammassa akovido ariyadhamme avinīto, sappurisānaṃ adassāvī sappurisadhammassa akovido sappurisadhamme avinīto rūpaṃ attato samanupassati rūpavantaṃ vā attānaṃ attani vā rūpaṃ rūpasmiṃ vā attānaṃ; vedanaṃ attato samanupassati... saññaṃ attato samanupassati... saṅkhāre attato samanupassati... viññāṇaṃ attato samanupassati viññāṇavantaṃ vā attānaṃ attani vā viññāṇaṃ viññāṇasmiṃ vā attānaṃ.

Just as a dog, tied by a leash to a post or stake, keeps running around and circling around that very post or stake; in the same way, an uninstructed, run-of-the-mill person — who has no regard for noble ones, is not well-versed or disciplined in their Dhamma; who has no regard for people of integrity, is not well-versed or disciplined in their Dhamma — assumes form to be the self, or the self as possessing form, or form as in the self, or the self as in form. He assumes feeling to be the self... He assumes perception to be the self... He assumes (mental) fabrications to be the self... He assumes consciousness to be the self, or the self as possessing consciousness, or consciousness as in the self, or the self as in consciousness.

so rūpaññeva anuparidhāvati anuparivattati, vedanaññeva ... saññaññeva... saṅkhāreyeva... viññāṇaññeva anuparidhāvati anuparivattati. so rūpaṃ anuparidhāvaṃ anuparivattaṃ, vedanaṃ ... saññaṃ... saṅkhāre... viññāṇaṃ anuparidhāvaṃ anuparivattaṃ, na parimuccati rūpamhā... vedanāya... saññāya... saṅkhārehi... viññāṇamhā, na parimuccati jātiyā jarāmaraṇena sokehi paridevehi dukkhehi domanassehi upāyāsehi. ‘na parimuccati dukkhasmā’ti vadāmi”.

He keeps running around and circling around that very form... that very feeling... that very perception... those very fabrications... that very consciousness. He is not set loose from form, not set loose from feeling... from perception... from fabrications... not set loose from consciousness. He is not set loose from birth, aging, & death; from sorrows, lamentations, pains, distresses, & despairs. He is not set loose, I tell you, from suffering & stress.


This delusion is described as being the source of the mistake that brings about the idea of an existing self:


SN 22.47

“ye hi keci, bhikkhave, samaṇā vā brāhmaṇā vā anekavihitaṃ attānaṃ samanupassamānā samanupassanti, sabbete pañcupādānakkhandhe samanupassanti, etesaṃ vā aññataraṃ. katame pañca? idha, bhikkhave, assutavā puthujjano ariyānaṃ adassāvī ariyadhammassa akovido ariyadhamme avinīto, sappurisānaṃ adassāvī sappurisadhammassa akovido sappurisadhamme avinīto rūpaṃ attato samanupassati, rūpavantaṃ vā attānaṃ; attani vā rūpaṃ, rūpasmiṃ vā attānaṃ. vedanaṃ. saññaṃ. saṅkhāre. viññāṇaṃ attato samanupassati, viññāṇavantaṃ vā attānaṃ; attani vā viññāṇaṃ, viññāṇasmiṃ vā attānaṃ”.

Monks, whatever contemplatives or brahmans who assume in various ways when assuming a self, all assume the five clinging-aggregates, or a certain one of them. Which five? There is the case where an uninstructed, run-of-the-mill person — who has no regard for noble ones, is not well-versed or disciplined in their Dhamma; who has no regard for men of integrity, is not well-versed or disciplined in their Dhamma — assumes form to be the self, or the self as possessing form, or form as in the self, or the self as in form. He assumes feeling to be the self... He assumes perception to be the self... He assumes (mental) fabrications to be the self... He assumes consciousness to be the self, or the self as possessing consciousness, or consciousness as in the self, or the self as in consciousness.

“iti ayañceva samanupassanā ‘asmī’ti cassa avigataṃ hoti. ‘asmī’ti kho pana, bhikkhave, avigate pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ avakkanti hoti: cakkhundriyassa sotindriyassa ghānindriyassa jivhindriyassa kāyindriyassa.

Thus, both this assumption & the understanding, 'I am,' occur to him. And so it is with reference to the understanding 'I am' that there is the appearance of the five faculties — eye, ear, nose, tongue, & body (the senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste, & touch).

atthi, bhikkhave, mano, atthi dhammā, atthi avijjādhātu. avijjāsamphassajena, bhikkhave, vedayitena phuṭṭhassa assutavato puthujjanassa ‘asmī’tipissa hoti; ‘ayamahamasmī’tipissa hoti; ‘bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘na bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘rūpī bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘arūpī bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘saññī bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘asaññī bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘nevasaññīnāsaññī bhavissan’tipissa hoti”.

Now, there is the intellect, there are ideas (mental qualities), there is the property of ignorance. To an uninstructed run-of-the-mill person, touched by experience born of the contact of ignorance, there occur (the thoughts): 'I am,' 'I am thus,' 'I shall be,' 'I shall not be,' 'I shall be possessed of form,' 'I shall be formless,' 'I shall be percipient (conscious),' 'I shall be non-percipient,' or 'I shall be neither percipient nor non-percipient.'


The exact same description occurs also at MN 109 in a definition of sakkāya·diṭṭhi.

At SN 22.44, the same description is again given to explain the expression 'sakkāya·samudaya·gāminī paṭipada' (the path leading to the arising of self-identification), and it is also equated to 'dukkha·samudaya·gāminī samanupassanā' (a way of seeing things that leads to the arising of dukkha).


Sometimes, the stock expression 'rūpaṃ attato samanupassati rūpavantaṃ vā attānaṃ attani vā rūpaṃ rūpasmiṃ vā attānaṃ' (he assumes form to be the self, or the self as possessing form, or form as in the self, or the self as in form) is replaced by 'rūpaṃ ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’’ti samanupassati' (he regards Form as 'This is mine. This is my self. This is what I am'). Here in the context of an explanation about upādāna:


SN 22.8

kathañca, bhikkhave, upādāparitassanā hoti? idha, bhikkhave, assutavā puthujjano rūpaṃ ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’’ti samanupassati. tassa taṃ rūpaṃ vipariṇamati aññathā hoti. tassa rūpavipariṇāmaññathābhāvā uppajjanti sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā. vedanaṃ... saññaṃ... saṅkhāre... viññāṇaṃ ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’’ti samanupassati. tassa taṃ viññāṇaṃ vipariṇamati aññathā hoti. tassa viññāṇavipariṇāmaññathābhāvā uppajjanti sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, upādāparitassanā hoti.

And how, bhikkhus, is there agitation through clinging? Here, bhikkhus, an uninstructed, run-of-the-mill person regards Form as 'This is mine. This is my self. This is what I am' His form changes & alters, and he falls into sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair over its change & alteration. He regards Feeling... Perception... Fabrications... Consciousness as 'This is mine. This is my self. This is what I am' His consciousness changes & alters, and he falls into sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair over its change & alteration. Thus, bhikkhus, there is agitation through clinging.


As we can also see here, atta·vād·upādāna has for consequence 'agitation through clinging' (upādāparitassanā).

The formula ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’’ti is also used to explain another way the expression 'sakkāya·samudaya·gāminī paṭipada' (the path leading to the arising of self-identification), and is applied to the six senses, their objects, their corresponding viññāṇa, their respective contacts, and the vedanā that arises subsquently:


MN 148

“ayaṃ kho pana, bhikkhave, sakkāyasamudayagāminī paṭipadā: cakkhuṃ ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’’ti samanupassati; rūpe ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’’ti samanupassati; cakkhuviññāṇaṃ ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’’ti samanupassati; cakkhusamphassaṃ ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’’ti samanupassati; vedanaṃ ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’’ti samanupassati; taṇhaṃ ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’’ti samanupassati; sotaṃ... ghānaṃ... jivhaṃ... kāyaṃ... manaṃ ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’’ti samanupassati, dhamme... samanupassati, manoviññāṇaṃ... samanupassati, manosamphassaṃ... samanupassati, vedanaṃ... samanupassati, taṇhaṃ ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’’ti samanupassati.

"This, monks, is the path of practice leading to self-identification. One assumes about the eye that 'This is me, this is my self, this is what I am.' One assumes about forms... One assumes about consciousness at the eye... One assumes about contact at the eye... One assumes about feeling... One assumes about craving that 'This is me, this is my self, this is what I am.' One assumes about the ear... the nose... the tongue... the body... the intellect that 'This is me, this is my self, this is what I am.' One assumes about ideas... One assumes about consciousness at the intellect... One assumes about contact at the intellect... One assumes about feeling... One assumes about craving that 'This is me, this is my self, this is what I am.'


The Alagaddūpama Sutta provides a slightly different formulation of how atta·vād·upādāna comes to be:


MN 22

“chayimāni, bhikkhave, diṭṭhiṭṭhānāni. katamāni cha? idha, bhikkhave, assutavā puthujjano... rūpaṃ ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’ti samanupassati; vedanaṃ... saññaṃ... saṅkhāre... yampi taṃ diṭṭhaṃ sutaṃ mutaṃ viññātaṃ pattaṃ pariyesitaṃ, anuvicaritaṃ manasā tampi ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’ti samanupassati; yampi taṃ diṭṭhiṭṭhānaṃ, so loko so attā, so pecca bhavissāmi nicco dhuvo sassato avipariṇāmadhammo, sassatisamaṃ tatheva ṭhassāmīti, tampi ‘etaṃ mama, esohamasmi, eso me attā’ti samanupassati.

Monks, there are these six view-positions. Which six? There is the case where an uninstructed, run-of-the-mill person... assumes about form: 'This is me, this is my self, this is what I am.' He assumes about feeling... perception... fabrications... about what seen, heard, sensed, cognized, attained, sought after, pondered by the intellect: 'This is me, this is my self, this is what I am.' He assumes about the view-position — 'This cosmos is the self. After death this I will be constant, permanent, eternal, not subject to change. I will stay just like that for an eternity': 'This is me, this is my self, this is what I am.'


The way to abandon atta·vād·upādāna is by seeing anatta in the five khandhas:


MN 8

“yā imā, cunda, anekavihitā diṭṭhiyo loke uppajjanti attavādapaṭisaṃyuttā vā lokavādapaṭisaṃyuttā vā yattha cetā diṭṭhiyo uppajjanti yattha ca anusenti yattha ca samudācaranti taṃ ‘netaṃ mama, nesohamasmi, na me so attā’ti evametaṃ yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññā passato evametāsaṃ diṭṭhīnaṃ pahānaṃ hoti, evametāsaṃ diṭṭhīnaṃ paṭinissaggo hoti.

"Cunda, as to those several views that arise in the world concerning self-doctrines and world-doctrines, if [the object] in which these views arise, in which they underlie and become active, is seen with right wisdom as it actually is, thus: 'This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self' — then the abandoning of these views, their discarding, takes place in him [who thus sees].



Bodhi leaf





avihiṃsā: [a+vihiṃsā] harmlessness, nonviolence, inoffensiveness.

There is no direct definition of the term in the suttas. It seems to have been a well-known concept at the time that did not require much explanation. It can be seen as a principle underlying sammā·vācā, sammā·kammanta and sammā·ājīva.

Avihiṃsā appears most prominently in avihiṃsā·saṅkappa, one of the three constituents of sammā·saṅkappa, which are also termed kusalā saṅkappā at MN 78. Alternatively, it also appears in the compound avihiṃsā·vitakka, which seems to be a synonym for avihiṃsā·saṅkappa. See also this blog article, arguing that, since avihiṃsā is set apart from a·byāpāda in those two lists, the word probably refers more specifically to instances where one harms others without ill-will or malevolence.

In several suttas (e.g. MN 114, AN 5.200) two of the three dhammas listed in sammā·saṅkappa appear in the same order, and avihiṃsā is replaced as the third by avihesā (non-harming). Another synonym is ahimsā (inoffensiveness):


AN 3.45

sabbhi dānaṃ upaññattaṃ, ahiṃsā saṃyamo damo.

The virtuous prescribe giving, inoffensiveness, self-control, and self-taming.


SN 10.4

“yassa sabbamahorattaṃ, ahiṃsāya rato mano mettaṃ so sabbabhūtesu, veraṃ tassa na kenacī”ti.

One whose mind takes delight in inoffensiveness all day and night, who has loving-kindness for all beings, has enmity towards none.


Inoffensiveness (ahiṃsā) is also nobility:


Dhp 270

na tena ariyo hoti, yena pāṇāni hiṃsati. ahiṃsā sabbapāṇānaṃ, “ariyo”ti pavuccati.

One who injures living beings is ignoble. One who is inoffensive towards all living beings is said to be a noble one.


In the Dhātu·vibhaṅga of the Abhidhamma, karuṇa is said to be inherent to avihiṃsā·dhātu: 'yā sattesu karuṇā karuṇāyanā karuṇāyitattaṃ karuṇācetovimutti, ayaṃ vuccati “avihiṃsādhātu”'. This statement finds an echo in various parts of the Sutta Piṭaka, as for example in the Dhammapada:


129. sabbe tasanti daṇḍassa, sabbe bhāyanti maccuno.
attānaṃ upamaṃ katvā, na haneyya na ghātaye.

129. All tremble at the rod, all are fearful of death.
Drawing the parallel to yourself, neither kill nor get others to kill.

130. sabbe tasanti daṇḍassa, sabbesaṃ jīvitaṃ piyaṃ.
attānaṃ upamaṃ katvā, na haneyya na ghātaye.

130. All tremble at the rod, all hold their life dear.
Drawing the parallel to yourself, neither kill nor get others to kill.


At AN 2.168, avihiṃsā is juxtaposed with soceyya (purity/purification). At Sn 294, the word is juxtaposed with maddava (mildness), soracca (gentleness) and khanti (forbearance). The first two find echo in expressions such as that defining pharusa·vāca veramaṇī (abstinence from harsh speech):


AN 10.176

yā sā vācā nelā kaṇṇasukhā pemanīyā hadayaṅgamā porī bahujanakantā bahujanamanāpā, tathārūpiṃ vācaṃ bhāsitā hoti.

He speaks words that are soothing to the ear, that are affectionate, that go to the heart, that are polite, appealing & pleasing to people at large.


Khanti (forbearance) is the word that is most often juxtaposed to avihiṃsā, a connection that is exemplified in many places, such as in the simile of the saw:


MN 21

“ubhatodaṇḍakena cepi, bhikkhave, kakacena corā ocarakā aṅgamaṅgāni okanteyyuṃ, tatrāpi yo mano padūseyya, na me so tena sāsanakaro. tatrāpi vo, bhikkhave, evaṃ sikkhitabbaṃ: ‘na ceva no cittaṃ vipariṇataṃ bhavissati, na ca pāpikaṃ vācaṃ nicchāressāma, hitānukampī ca viharissāma mettacittā na dosantarā. tañca puggalaṃ mettāsahagatena cetasā pharitvā viharissāma tadārammaṇañca sabbāvantaṃ lokaṃ mettāsahagatena cetasā vipulena mahaggatena appamāṇena averena abyābajjhena pharitvā viharissāmā’ti. evañhi vo, bhikkhave, sikkhitabbaṃ.

"Monks, even if bandits were to carve you up savagely, limb by limb, with a two-handled saw, he among you who let his heart get angered even at that would not be doing my bidding. Even then you should train yourselves: 'Our minds will be unaffected and we will say no evil words. We will remain sympathetic, with a mind of good will, and with no inner hate. We will keep pervading these people with an awareness imbued with good will and, beginning with them, we will keep pervading the entire world with an awareness imbued with good will — abundant, expansive, immeasurable, free from hostility, free from ill will.' That's how you should train yourselves.

“imañca tumhe, bhikkhave, kakacūpamaṃ ovādaṃ abhikkhaṇaṃ manasi kareyyātha. passatha no tumhe, bhikkhave, taṃ vacanapathaṃ, aṇuṃ vā thūlaṃ vā, yaṃ tumhe nādhivāseyyāthā”ti?

"Monks, if you attend constantly to this admonition on the simile of the saw, do you see any aspects of speech, slight or gross, that you could not endure?"

— “no hetaṃ, bhante”.

— "No, lord."


Another striking example is given at SN 35.88:


— “sace pana puṇṇa, sunāparantakā manussā daṇḍena pahāraṃ dassanti, tatra pana te, puṇṇa, kinti bhavissatī”ti?

— "But if they hit you with a stick...?"

— “sace me, bhante, sunāparantakā manussā daṇḍena pahāraṃ dassanti, tatra me evaṃ bhavissati: ‘bhaddakā vatime sunāparantakā manussā, subhaddakā vatime sunāparantakā manussā, yaṃ me nayime satthena pahāraṃ dentī’ti. evamettha, bhagavā, bhavissati; evamettha, sugata, bhavissatī”ti.

— "...I will think, 'These Sunaparanta people are civilized, very civilized, in that they don't hit me with a knife'..."

— “sace pana te, puṇṇa, sunāparantakā manussā satthena pahāraṃ dassanti, tatra pana te, puṇṇa, kinti bhavissatī”ti?

— "But if they hit you with a knife...?"

— “sace me, bhante, sunāparantakā manussā satthena pahāraṃ dassanti, tatra me evaṃ bhavissati: ‘bhaddakā vatime sunāparantakā manussā, subhaddakā vatime sunāparantakā manussā, yaṃ maṃ nayime tiṇhena satthena jīvitā voropentī’ti. evamettha, bhagavā, bhavissati; evamettha, sugata, bhavissatī”ti.

— "...I will think, 'These Sunaparanta people are civilized, very civilized, in that they don't take my life with a sharp knife'..."

— “sace pana taṃ, puṇṇa, sunāparantakā manussā tiṇhena satthena jīvitā voropessanti, tatra pana te, puṇṇa, kinti bhavissatī”ti?

— "But if they take your life with a sharp knife...?"

— “sace maṃ, bhante, sunāparantakā manussā tiṇhena satthena jīvitā voropessanti, tatra me evaṃ bhavissati: ‘santi kho tassa bhagavato sāvakā kāyena ca jīvitena ca aṭṭīyamānā harāyamānā jigucchamānā satthahārakaṃ pariyesanti, taṃ me idaṃ apariyiṭṭhaññeva satthahārakaṃ laddhan’ti. evamettha, bhagavā, bhavissati; evamettha, sugata, bhavissatī”ti.

— "If they take my life with a sharp knife, I will think, 'There are disciples of the Blessed One who — horrified, humiliated, and disgusted by the body and by life — have sought for an assassin, but here I have met my assassin without searching for him.' That is what I will think, O Blessed One. That is what I will think, O One Well-gone."

— “sādhu sādhu, puṇṇa! sakkhissasi kho tvaṃ, puṇṇa, iminā damūpasamena samannāgato sunāparantasmiṃ janapade vatthuṃ. yassa dāni tvaṃ, puṇṇa, kālaṃ maññasī”ti.

— "Good, Punna, very good. Possessing such calm and self-control you are fit to dwell among the Sunaparantans. Now it is time to do as you see fit."


SN 47.19 also juxtaposes metta·cittatā (having a mind of good will) and anudayatā (sympathy) to avihiṃsā:


SN 47.19

kathañca, bhikkhave, paraṃ rakkhanto attānaṃ rakkhati? khantiyā, avihiṃsāya, mettacittatāya, anudayatāya. evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, paraṃ rakkhanto attānaṃ rakkhati.

"And how do you watch after yourself when watching after others? Through endurance, through harmlessness, through a mind of goodwill, & through sympathy. This is how you watch after yourself when watching after others.


SN 14.12 explains how avihiṃsā originates and leads to wholesome action:


SN 14.12

“avihiṃsādhātuṃ, bhikkhave, paṭicca uppajjati avihiṃsāsaññā, avihiṃsāsaññaṃ paṭicca uppajjati avihiṃsāsaṅkappo, avihiṃsāsaṅkappaṃ paṭicca uppajjati avihiṃsāchando, avihiṃsāchandaṃ paṭicca uppajjati avihiṃsāpariḷāho, avihiṃsāpariḷāhaṃ paṭicca uppajjati avihiṃsāpariyesanā; avihiṃsāpariyesanaṃ, bhikkhave, pariyesamāno sutavā ariyasāvako tīhi ṭhānehi sammā paṭipajjati kāyena, vācāya, manasā.

On account of the harmlessness element there arises the perception of harmlessness; on account of the perception of harmlessness there arises an aspiration to harmlessness; on account of the aspiration to harmlessness there arises a desire for harmlessness; on account of the desire for harmlessness there arises a passion for harmlessness; on account of the passion for harmlessness there arises a quest for harmlessness. Engaged in the quest for harmlessness, an instructed noble disciple acts rightly in three ways: by body, speech, and mind.


Practicing harmlessness is behaving like a bee in a flower:


Dhp 49

yathāpi bhamaro pupphaṃ, vaṇṇagandhamaheṭhayaṃ, paleti rasamādāya, evaṃ gāme munī care.

As a bee gathers honey from the flower without injuring its color or fragrance, even so the sage goes on his alms-round in the village.


Lacking avihiṃsā is extensively described as bringing unpleasant results:


Dhp 133

māvoca pharusaṃ kañci, vuttā paṭivadeyyu taṃ dukkhā hi sārambhakathā, paṭidaṇḍā phuseyyu taṃ.

Speak harshly to no one, or the words will be thrown right back at you. Contentious talk is painful, for you get struck by rods in return.


Dhp 137-140

yo daṇḍena adaṇḍesu, appaduṭṭhesu dussati dasannamaññataraṃ ṭhānaṃ, khippameva nigacchati: vedanaṃ pharusaṃ jāniṃ, sarīrassa ca bhedanaṃ. garukaṃ vāpi ābādhaṃ, cittakkhepañca pāpuṇe. rājato vā upasaggaṃ, abbhakkhānañca dāruṇaṃ. parikkhayañca ñātīnaṃ, bhogānañca pabhaṅguraṃ. atha vāssa agārāni, aggi ḍahati pāvako. kāyassa bhedā duppañño, nirayaṃ sopapajjati.

Whoever, with a rod harasses an innocent man, unarmed, quickly falls into any of ten things: harsh pains, devastation, a broken body, grave illness, mental derangement, trouble with the government, violent slander, relatives lost, property dissolved, houses burned down. At the break-up of the body this one with no discernment, reappears in hell.


SN 3.15

“vilumpateva puriso, yāvassa upakappati. yadā caññe vilumpanti, so vilutto viluppati.

A man may plunder as long as it serves his ends, but when others are plundered, he who has plundered gets plundered in turn.

“ṭhānañhi maññati bālo, yāva pāpaṃ na paccati. yadā ca paccati pāpaṃ, atha dukkhaṃ nigacchati.

A fool thinks, 'Now's my chance,' as long as his evil has yet to ripen. But when it ripens, the fool falls into pain.

“hantā labhati hantāraṃ, jetāraṃ labhate jayaṃ. akkosako ca akkosaṃ, rosetārañca rosako. atha kammavivaṭṭena, so vilutto viluppatī”ti.

Killing, you gain your killer. Conquering, you gain one who will conquer you; insulting, insult; harassing, harassment. And so, through the cycle of action, he who has plundered gets plundered in turn.


Abandoning non-harmlessness and taking up avihiṃsā prevents bad experiences from arising and causes pleasant ones to arise in the future:


Dhp 131-132

sukhakāmāni bhūtāni, yo daṇḍena vihiṃsati. attano sukhamesāno, pecca so na labhate sukhaṃ.

Whoever takes a rod to harm living beings desiring ease, when he himself is looking for ease, will meet with no ease after death.

sukhakāmāni bhūtāni, yo daṇḍena na hiṃsati. attano sukhamesāno, pecca so labhate sukhaṃ.

Whoever doesn't take a rod to harm living beings desiring ease, when he himself is looking for ease, will meet with ease after death.


MN 135

“idha, māṇava, ekacco itthī vā puriso vā sattānaṃ viheṭhakajātiko hoti, pāṇinā vā leḍḍunā vā daṇḍena vā satthena vā. so tena kammena evaṃ samattena evaṃ samādinnena kāyassa bhedā paraṃ maraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati. no ce kāyassa bhedā paraṃ maraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati, sace manussattaṃ āgacchati yattha yattha paccājāyati bavhābādho hoti. bavhābādhasaṃvattanikā esā, māṇava, paṭipadā yadidaṃ sattānaṃ viheṭhakajātiko hoti pāṇinā vā leḍḍunā vā daṇḍena vā satthena vā.

Furthermore, there is the case where a certain woman or man has a tendency to injure living beings with the hand, with a clod, with a stick, or with a knife. From adopting & carrying out such actions, then on the break-up of the body, after death, this person re-appears in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination, the lower realms, in hell. Or, if he/she does not reappear in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination, the lower realms, in hell, but instead returns to the human state, then he/she is sickly wherever reborn. This is the way leading to being sickly, namely being one who has a tendency to injure living beings with the hand, with a clod, with a stick, or with a knife.

“idha pana, māṇava, ekacco itthī vā puriso vā sattānaṃ aviheṭhakajātiko hoti pāṇinā vā leḍḍunā vā daṇḍena vā satthena vā. so tena kammena evaṃ samattena evaṃ samādinnena kāyassa bhedā paraṃ maraṇā sugatiṃ saggaṃ lokaṃ upapajjati. no ce kāyassa bhedā paraṃ maraṇā sugatiṃ saggaṃ lokaṃ upapajjati, sace manussattaṃ āgacchati yattha yattha paccājāyati appābādho hoti. appābādhasaṃvattanikā esā, māṇava, paṭipadā yadidaṃ sattānaṃ aviheṭhakajātiko hoti pāṇinā vā leḍḍunā vā daṇḍena vā satthena vā.

But there is the case where a certain woman or man does not have a tendency to injure living beings with the hand, with a clod, with a stick, or with a knife. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination, in the heavenly world. Or, if he/she does not reappear in the good destinations, in the heavenly world, but instead returns to the human state, then he/she is healthy wherever reborn. This is the way leading to being healthy, namely being one who, abandoning the taking of life, abstains from taking life does not have a tendency to injure living beings with the hand, with a clod, with a stick, or with a knife.


Dhp 300

suppabuddhaṃ pabujjhanti, sadā gotamasāvakā. yesaṃ divā ca ratto ca, ahiṃsāya rato mano.

Those disciples of Gotama ever awaken happily whose minds by day and night delight in the practice of non-violence.


Dharmacāri Nāgapriya writes: "The early Buddhist vocabulary includes an important class of words that, while denoting highly positive qualities, take a grammatically negative form. Avihiṃsa is a leading example of this. To translate the term as ‘non-violence’ doesn’t reflect the positive nuance of the quality to which it refers. Notwithstanding, it is worth looking at the quality in question from both a negative and a positive point of view in order to bring its nature more clearly to light. First of all – and in negative terms – avihiṃsa can be understood as an application of the general principle of renunciation: the saint renounces all violence whether physical, verbal, or emotional: Whoever in this world harms a living creature, whether once-born or twice- born, whoever has no compassion for a living creature, him one should know to be an outcaste. (Sn.117) He gives up coercion of any kind and thus abandons the ‘power mode’, the style of relating to others purely as objects and means of his own gratification, adopting instead the ‘love mode’, the appreciation of others as individual, feelingful subjects meriting sensitive consideration and respect. This entails abandoning a host of negative mental states such as kodha or fury (Sn.1), kopa or ill-temper and grudge (Sn.6), upanāha or rancour/enmity (Sn.116), paccuṭṭapannā or hostility (Sn.245), usuyyā or envy (Sn.245), atipāti or violent destructiveness (Sn.248), paṭigha (Sn.148) or malicious rage, and dosa or hatred (Sn.328). One of the distinguishing features of the Sutta-Nipāta is the plethora of different nasty mental states that it identifies. This laid some of the foundations for the later work of the Abhidhamma. Again the terms used are fluid and non-technical. By considering the terms as a whole we can get a feeling for the flavour of what the saint is enjoined to abandon. At the same time, it is important to appreciate the positive counterpart of this renunciation of violent negativity. This is expressed most sublimely in the Mettā Sutta: Just as a mother would protect with her own life her own son, her only son, so one should cultivate an unbounded mind towards all beings, and loving-kindness towards all the world. One should cultivate an unbounded mind, above and below and across, without obstruction, without enmity, without rivalry. (Sn.149-50)"



Bodhi leaf





avijjā: [a+vijjā]

nescience, ignorance.

Avijjā is defined at SN 12.2 as consisting of ignorance regarding the four noble truths:


“katamā ca, bhikkhave, avijjā? yaṃ kho, bhikkhave, dukkhe aññāṇaṃ, dukkhasamudaye aññāṇaṃ, dukkhanirodhe aññāṇaṃ, dukkhanirodhagāminiyā paṭipadāya aññāṇaṃ. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, avijjā.

And what is ignorance? Not knowing suffering, not knowing the origination of suffering, not knowing the cessation of suffering, not knowing the way of practice leading to the cessation of suffering: This is called ignorance.



Other definitions relating to the five khandhas can be found in the Khandha Saṃyutta.


SN 22.113

— “‘avijjā avijjā’ti, bhante, vuccati. katamā nu kho, bhante, avijjā, kittāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti?

'Ignorance, ignorance', it is said, Bhante. What, Bhante, is ignorance, and to what extent is one immersed in ignorance?

— “idha, bhikkhu, assutavā puthujjano rūpaṃ nappajānāti, rūpasamudayaṃ nappajānāti, rūpanirodhaṃ nappajānāti, rūpanirodhagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ nappajānāti;

— Here, bhikkhu, an uninstructed ordinary person does not understand Form, does not understand the origin of Form, does not understand the cessation of Form, does not understand the way leading to the cessation of Form.

vedanaṃ nappajānāti, vedanāsamudayaṃ nappajānāti, vedanānirodhaṃ nappajānāti, vedanānirodhagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ nappajānāti;

He does not understand Feeling, does not understand the origin of Feeling, does not understand the cessation of Feeling, does not understand the way leading to the cessation of Feeling.

saññaṃ nappajānāti, saññāsamudayaṃ nappajānāti, saññānirodhaṃ nappajānāti, saññānirodhagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ nappajānāti;

He does not understand Perception, does not understand the origin of Perception, does not understand the cessation of Perception, does not understand the way leading to the cessation of Perception.

saṅkhāre nappajānāti, saṅkhārasamudayaṃ nappajānāti, saṅkhāranirodhaṃ nappajānāti, saṅkhāranirodhagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ nappajānāti;

He does not understand Constructions, does not understand the origin of Constructions, does not understand the cessation of Constructions, does not understand the way leading to the cessation of Constructions.

viññāṇaṃ nappajānāti, viññāṇasamudayaṃ nappajānāti, viññāṇanirodhaṃ nappajānāti, viññāṇanirodhagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ nappajānāti;

He does not understand Consciousness, does not understand the origin of Consciousness, does not understand the cessation of Consciousness, does not understand the way leading to the cessation of Consciousness.

ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhu, avijjā. ettāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti.

This, bhikkhu, is called ignorance, and it is to this extent that one is immersed in ignorance.



SN 22.126

— “‘avijjā avijjā’ti, bhante, vuccati. katamā nu kho, bhante, avijjā, kittāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti?

'Ignorance, ignorance', it is said, Bhante. What, Bhante, is ignorance, and to what extent is one immersed in ignorance?

— “idha, bhikkhu, assutavā puthujjano samudayadhammaṃ rūpaṃ ‘samudayadhammaṃ rūpan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti; vayadhammaṃ rūpaṃ ‘vayadhammaṃ rūpan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti; samudayavayadhammaṃ rūpaṃ ‘samudayavayadhammaṃ rūpan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.

— Here, bhikkhu, an uninstructed ordinary person does not understand Form by nature subject to arising as it really is: 'Form is by nature subject to arising'. He does not understand Form by nature subject to passing away as it really is: 'Form is by nature subject to passing away'. He does not understand Form by nature subject to arising & passing away as it really is: 'Form is by nature subject to arising & passing away'.

samudayadhammaṃ vedanaṃ ‘samudayadhammā vedanā’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti; vayadhammaṃ vedanaṃ ‘vayadhammā vedanā’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti; samudayavayadhammaṃ vedanaṃ ‘samudayavayadhammā vedanā’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.

He does not understand Feeling by nature subject to arising as it really is: 'Feeling is by nature subject to arising'. He does not understand Feeling by nature subject to passing away as it really is: 'Feeling is by nature subject to passing away'. He does not understand Feeling by nature subject to arising & passing away as it really is: 'Feeling is by nature subject to arising & passing away'.

samudayadhammaṃ saññaṃ ‘samudayadhammaṃ saññan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti; vayadhammaṃ saññaṃ ‘vayadhammaṃ saññan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti; samudayavayadhammaṃ saññaṃ ‘samudayavayadhammaṃ saññan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.

He does not understand Perception by nature subject to arising as it really is: 'Perception is by nature subject to arising'. He does not understand Perception by nature subject to passing away as it really is: 'Perception is by nature subject to passing away'. He does not understand Perception by nature subject to arising & passing away as it really is: 'Perception is by nature subject to arising & passing away'.

samudayadhamme saṅkhāre ‘samudayadhammā saṅkhārā’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti; vayadhamme saṅkhāre ‘vayadhammā saṅkhārā’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti; samudayavayadhamme saṅkhāre ‘samudayavayadhammā saṅkhārā’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.

He does not understand Constructions by nature subject to arising as it really is: 'Constructions is by nature subject to arising'. He does not understand Constructions by nature subject to passing away as it really is: 'Constructions is by nature subject to passing away'. He does not understand Constructions by nature subject to arising & passing away as it really is: 'Constructions is by nature subject to arising & passing away'.

samudayadhammaṃ viññāṇaṃ ‘samudayadhammaṃ viññāṇan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti; vayadhammaṃ viññāṇaṃ ‘vayadhammaṃ viññāṇan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti; samudayavayadhammaṃ viññāṇaṃ ‘samudayavayadhammaṃ viññāṇan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhu, avijjā; ettāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti.

He does not understand Consciousness by nature subject to arising as it really is: 'Consciousness is by nature subject to arising'. He does not understand Consciousness by nature subject to passing away as it really is: 'Consciousness is by nature subject to passing away'. He does not understand Consciousness by nature subject to arising & passing away as it really is: 'Consciousness is by nature subject to arising & passing away'.

ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhu, avijjā. ettāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti.

This, bhikkhu, is called ignorance, and it is to this extent that one is immersed in ignorance.



SN 22.129

— “‘avijjā avijjā’ti, bhante, vuccati. katamā nu kho, bhante, avijjā, kittāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti?

'Ignorance, ignorance', it said, Bhante. What, Bhante, is ignorance, and to what extent is one immersed in ignorance?

— “idhāvuso assutavā puthujjano rūpassa assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti, vedanāya assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti, saññāya assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti, saṅkhārānaṃ assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti, viññāṇassa assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.

— Here, friend, an uninstructed ordinary person does not understand as it really is the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to Form, he does not understand as it really is the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to Feeling, he does not understand as it really is the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to Perception, he does not understand as it really is the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to Fabrications, he does not understand as it really is the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to Consciousness.

— ayaṃ vuccatāvuso, avijjā; ettāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti.

This, friend, is called ignorance, and it is to this extent that one is immersed in ignorance.


At SN 22.84, avijjā is likened to a 'dense thicket' (tibbo vanasaṇḍo) along the path to nibbāna. At MN 19, it is likened to a 'decoy' (okacara) set up by a hunter (Māra) in order to lure a herd of deers on a false path that will bring them calamity and disaster. At MN 105, avijjā is likened to a poison (visadosa) smeared on an arrow (salla) which has wounded someone. The arrow represents taṇhā, while the poison is spread out by chanda·rāga·byāpāda.

Avijjā is one of the three āsavas, along with kāma and bhava.

Avijjā is one of the four oghas (floods), as well as one of the four yogas (bonds), and is juxtaposed in both sets with kāma, bhava and diṭṭhi.


AN 4.10

Avijjāyogo ca kathaṃ hoti? Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco channaṃ phassāyatanānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathā·bhūtaṃ nappajānāti. Tassa channaṃ phassāyatanānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathā·bhūtaṃ appajānato yā chasu phassāyatanesu avijjā aññāṇaṃ sānuseti. Ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, avijjāyogo.

"And how is there the yoke of ignorance? There is the case where a certain person does not discern, as it actually is present, the origination, the passing away, the allure, the drawbacks, & the escape from the six sense media. When he does not discern, as it actually is present, the origination, the passing away, the allure, the drawbacks, & the escape from the six sense media, then — with regard to ignorance concerning the six sense media — he is obsessed with not-knowing. This is the yoke of ignorance.


Avijjā is one of the uddhambhāgiyā saṃyojanā (higher fetters), along with rūpa·rāga, arūpa·rāga, māna, and uddhacca.

Avijjā is also the last of the seven anusayas, along with kāma·rāga, paṭigha, diṭṭhi, vicikiccha, māna and bhava·rāga. As an anusaya, avijjā is related to adukkham·asukhā vedanā:


MN 148

adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya phuṭṭho samāno tassā vedanāya samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti. tassa avijjānusayo anuseti.

If, when touched by a feeling of neither pleasure nor pain, one does not discern, as it actually is present, the origination, passing away, allure, drawback, or escape from that feeling, then one's ignorance-obsession gets obsessed.


MN 44

“adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo anusetī”ti...

Ignorance-obsession gets obsessed with neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling...

“sabbāya adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo anusetī”ti?...

Does ignorance-obsession get obsessed with all neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling?...

“na sabbāya adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo anusetī”ti...

No, ignorance-obsession does not get obsessed with all neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling...

“adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya kiṃ pahātabban”ti?...

What is to be abandoned with regard to neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling?...

“adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo pahātabbo”ti...

Ignorance-obsession is to be abandoned with regard to neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling...

“sabbāya adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo pahātabbo”ti?...

Is ignorance-obsession to be abandoned with regard to all neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling?...

na sabbāya adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo pahātabbo...

No, ignorance-obsession is not to be abandoned with regard to all neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling...

idhāvuso visākha, bhikkhu sukhassa ca pahānā, dukkhassa ca pahānā, pubbeva somanassadomanassānaṃ atthaṅgamā, adukkhamasukhaṃ upekkhāsatipārisuddhiṃ catutthaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati. avijjaṃ tena pajahati, na tattha avijjānusayo anusetī”ti.

There is the case where a monk, with the abandoning of pleasure & pain — as with the earlier disappearance of elation & distress — enters & remains in the fourth jhana: purity of equanimity & mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain. With that he abandons ignorance. No ignorance-obsession gets obsessed there.


Avijjā is also related to 'that which is felt born of contact with ignorance' (avijjā·samphassa·ja vedayita):


SN 22.47

atthi, bhikkhave, mano, atthi dhammā, atthi avijjādhātu. avijjāsamphassajena, bhikkhave, vedayitena phuṭṭhassa assutavato puthujjanassa ‘asmī’tipissa hoti; ‘ayamahamasmī’tipissa hoti; ‘bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘na bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘rūpī bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘arūpī bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘saññī bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘asaññī bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘nevasaññīnāsaññī bhavissan’tipissa hoti”.

Now, there is the intellect, there are ideas (mental qualities), there is the property of ignorance. To an uninstructed run-of-the-mill person, touched by experience born of the contact of ignorance, there occur (the thoughts): 'I am,' 'I am thus,' 'I shall be,' 'I shall not be,' 'I shall be possessed of form,' 'I shall be formless,' 'I shall be percipient (conscious),' 'I shall be non-percipient,' or 'I shall be neither percipient nor non-percipient.'

“tiṭṭhanteva kho, bhikkhave, tattheva pañcindriyāni. athettha sutavato ariyasāvakassa avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjati. tassa avijjāvirāgā vijjuppādā ‘asmī’tipissa na hoti; ‘ayamahamasmī’tipissa na hoti; ‘bhavissan’tipissa na hoti; ‘na bhavissan’tipissa na hoti; ‘rūpī bhavissan’tipissa na hoti; ‘arūpī bhavissan’tipissa na hoti; ‘saññī bhavissan’tipissa na hoti; ‘asaññī bhavissan’tipissa na hoti; ‘nevasaññīnāsaññībhavissan’tipissa na hotī”ti.

The five faculties, monks, continue as they were. And with regard to them the well-instructed disciple of the noble ones abandons ignorance and gives rise to clear knowing. Owing to the fading of ignorance and the arising of clear knowing, (the thoughts) — 'I am,' 'I am this,' 'I shall be,' 'I shall not be,' 'I shall be possessed of form,' 'I shall be formless,' 'I shall be percipient (conscious),' 'I shall be non-percipient,' and 'I shall be neither percipient nor non-percipient' — do not occur to him.


SN 22.81

avijjāsamphassajena, bhikkhave, vedayitena phuṭṭhassa assutavato puthujjanassa uppannā taṇhā

To an uninstructed, run-of-the-mill person, touched by that which is felt born of contact with ignorance, craving arises.


At AN 3.67, avijjā is explained as having moha for synonym, although it is arguable that, given the position of avijjā among the anusayas, it would refer to a deeper type of mental factor related to ignorance, that may not be active all the time, of which moha would be the active expression through delusion.

Avijjā is also the root cause in paṭicca·samuppāda, giving rise to saṅkhāras. As mentioned above, the term is defined in this context at SN 12.2 as not knowing the four ariya·saccas. The role that avijjā plays in regard to other akusala dhammas is also referred to outside of the context of paṭicca·samuppāda:


SN 20.1

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, kūṭāgārassa yā kāci gopānasiyo sabbā tā kūṭaṅgamā kūṭasamosaraṇā kūṭasamugghātā sabbā tā samugghātaṃ gacchanti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, ye keci akusalā dhammā sabbe te avijjāmūlakā avijjāsamosaraṇā avijjāsamugghātā, sabbe te samugghātaṃ gacchanti.

Just as the rafters in a peak-roofed house all go to the roof-peak, incline to the roof-peak, converge at the roof-peak, and all are removed when the roof-peak is removed; in the same way, all unwholesome qualities are rooted in ignorance and converge upon ignorance, and all are removed when ignorance is removed.


SN 45.1

“avijjā, bhikkhave, pubbaṅgamā akusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ samāpattiyā, anvadeva ahirikaṃ anottappaṃ. avijjāgatassa, bhikkhave, aviddasuno micchādiṭṭhi pahoti; micchādiṭṭhissa micchāsaṅkappo pahoti; micchāsaṅkappassa micchāvācā pahoti; micchāvācassa micchākammanto pahoti; micchākammantassa micchāājīvo pahoti; micchāājīvassa micchāvāyāmo pahoti; micchāvāyāmassa micchāsati pahoti; micchāsatissa micchāsamādhi pahoti.

Monks, ignorance is the leader in the attainment of unskillful qualities, followed by lack of conscience & lack of concern. In an unknowledgeable person, immersed in ignorance, wrong view arises. In one of wrong view, wrong resolve arises. In one of wrong resolve, wrong speech arises. In one of wrong speech, wrong action arises. In one of wrong action, wrong livelihood arises. In one of wrong livelihood, wrong effort arises. In one of wrong effort, wrong mindfulness arises. In one of wrong mindfulness, wrong concentration arises.


Avijjā gives rise to āsavas:


AN 6.63

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, āsavānaṃ nidānasambhavo? avijjā, bhikkhave, āsavānaṃ nidānasambhavo...

And what is the cause by which fermentations come into play? Ignorance is the cause by which fermentations come into play...

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, āsavanirodho? avijjānirodho, bhikkhave, āsavanirodho.

And what is the cessation of fermentations? From the cessation of ignorance is the cessation of fermentations


As we will see below, the relationship between avijjā and āsavas is reciprocal. Avijjā is also specificly said to give rise to craving:


AN 4.50

avijjānivutā posā, piyarūpābhinandino.

Men hindered by ignorance seek delight in pleasant things


AN 10.62

“bhavataṇhāmpāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sāhāraṃ vadāmi, no anāhāraṃ. ko cāhāro bhavataṇhāya? ‘avijjā’tissa vacanīyaṃ.

I say, bhikkhus, that craving for existence has a nutriment; it is not without nutriment. And what is the nutriment for craving for existence? It should be said: ignorance.


Avijjā appears due to specific factors. The five nīvaraṇas:


AN 10.61

“purimā, bhikkhave, koṭi na paññāyati avijjāya: ‘ito pubbe avijjā nāhosi, atha pacchā samabhavī’ti. evañcetaṃ, bhikkhave, vuccati, atha ca pana paññāyati: ‘idappaccayā avijjā’ti. avijjampāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sāhāraṃ vadāmi, no anāhāraṃ. ko cāhāro avijjāya? ‘pañca nīvaraṇā’tissa vacanīyaṃ.

Bhikkhus, this is said: ‘A first point of ignorance, bhikkhus, is not seen such that before this there was no ignorance and afterward it came into being.’ Still, ignorance is seen to have a specific condition. I say, bhikkhus, that ignorance has a nutriment; it is not without nutriment. And what is the nutriment for ignorance? It should be said: the five hindrances.


Ayoniso manasikāra:


MN 2

“katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā na manasikaraṇīyā ye dhamme manasi karoti? yassa, bhikkhave, dhamme manasikaroto anuppanno vā kāmāsavo uppajjati, uppanno vā kāmāsavo pavaḍḍhati; anuppanno vā bhavāsavo uppajjati, uppanno vā bhavāsavo pavaḍḍhati; anuppanno vā avijjāsavo uppajjati, uppanno vā avijjāsavo pavaḍḍhati. ime dhammā na manasikaraṇīyā ye dhamme manasi karoti...

And what are the ideas unfit for attention that he attends to? Whatever ideas such that, when he attends to them, the unarisen fermentation of sensuality arises in him, and the arisen fermentation of sensuality increases; the unarisen fermentation of becoming arises in him, and arisen fermentation of becoming increases; the unarisen fermentation of ignorance arises in him, and the arisen fermentation of ignorance increases. These are the ideas unfit for attention that he attends to...

“so evaṃ ayoniso manasi karoti: ‘ahosiṃ nu kho ahaṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? na nu kho ahosiṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ nu kho ahosiṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? kathaṃ nu kho ahosiṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ hutvā kiṃ ahosiṃ nu kho ahaṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? bhavissāmi nu kho ahaṃ anāgatamaddhānaṃ? na nu kho bhavissāmi anāgatamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ nu kho bhavissāmi anāgatamaddhānaṃ? kathaṃ nu kho bhavissāmi anāgatamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ hutvā kiṃ bhavissāmi nu kho ahaṃ anāgatamaddhānan’ti? etarahi vā paccuppannamaddhānaṃ ajjhattaṃ kathaṃkathī hoti: ‘ahaṃ nu khosmi? no nu khosmi? kiṃ nu khosmi? kathaṃ nu khosmi? ayaṃ nu kho satto kuto āgato? so kuhiṃ gāmī bhavissatī’ti?

"This is how he attends inappropriately: 'Was I in the past? Was I not in the past? What was I in the past? How was I in the past? Having been what, what was I in the past? Shall I be in the future? Shall I not be in the future? What shall I be in the future? How shall I be in the future? Having been what, what shall I be in the future?' Or else he is inwardly perplexed about the immediate present: 'Am I? Am I not? What am I? How am I? Where has this being come from? Where is it bound?'

“tassa evaṃ ayoniso manasikaroto channaṃ diṭṭhīnaṃ aññatarā diṭṭhi uppajjati. ‘atthi me attā’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; ‘natthi me attā’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; ‘attanāva attānaṃ sañjānāmī’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; ‘attanāva anattānaṃ sañjānāmī’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; ‘anattanāva attānaṃ sañjānāmī’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; atha vā panassa evaṃ diṭṭhi hoti: ‘yo me ayaṃ attā vado vedeyyo tatra tatra kalyāṇapāpakānaṃ kammānaṃ vipākaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti so kho pana me ayaṃ attā nicco dhuvo sassato avipariṇāmadhammo sassatisamaṃ tatheva ṭhassatī’ti. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, diṭṭhigataṃ diṭṭhigahanaṃ diṭṭhikantāraṃ diṭṭhivisūkaṃ diṭṭhivipphanditaṃ diṭṭhisaṃyojanaṃ. diṭṭhisaṃyojanasaṃyutto, bhikkhave, assutavā puthujjano na parimuccati jātiyā jarāya maraṇena sokehi paridevehi dukkhehi domanassehi upāyāsehi; ‘na parimuccati dukkhasmā’ti vadāmi.

"As he attends inappropriately in this way, one of six kinds of view arises in him: The view I have a self arises in him as true & established, or the view I have no self... or the view It is precisely by means of self that I perceive self... or the view It is precisely by means of self that I perceive not-self... or the view It is precisely by means of not-self that I perceive self arises in him as true & established, or else he has a view like this: This very self of mine — the knower that is sensitive here & there to the ripening of good & bad actions — is the self of mine that is constant, everlasting, eternal, not subject to change, and will stay just as it is for eternity. This is called a thicket of views, a wilderness of views, a contortion of views, a writhing of views, a fetter of views. Bound by a fetter of views, the uninstructed run-of-the-mill person is not freed from birth, aging, & death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair. He is not freed, I tell you, from suffering & stress.


Āsavas:


MN 9

āsavasamudayā avijjāsamudayo, āsavanirodhā avijjānirodho

With the arising of the taints there is the arising of ignorance. With the cessation of the taints there is the cessation of ignorance.


A number of factors leading to the cessation of avijjā are also mentioned in the suttas. Kāyagatāsati:


AN 1.586

“ekadhamme, bhikkhave, bhāvite bahulīkate avijjā pahīyati. katamasmiṃ ekadhamme? kāyagatāya satiyā.

When one thing, bhikkhus, is developed and cultivated, ignorance is abandoned. Which thing? Mindfulness directed to the body.


Anicca·saññā:


SN 22.102

“aniccasaññā, bhikkhave, bhāvitā bahulīkatā sabbaṃ kāmarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanati”.

Bhikkhus, when the perception of impermanence is developed and cultivated, it eliminates all sensual lust, it eliminates all lust for existence, it eliminates all ignorance, it uproots all conceit ‘I am.’

...

...

“kathaṃ bhāvitā ca, bhikkhave, aniccasaññā kathaṃ bahulīkatā sabbaṃ kāmarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanati? ‘iti rūpaṃ, iti rūpassa samudayo, iti rūpassa atthaṅgamo; iti vedanā, iti vedanāya samudayo, iti vedanāya atthaṅgamo; iti saññā, iti saññāya samudayo, iti saññāya atthaṅgamo; iti saṅkhārā, iti saṅkhārānaṃ samudayo, iti saṅkhārānaṃ atthaṅgamo; iti viññāṇaṃ, iti viññāṇassa samudayo, iti viññāṇassa atthaṅgamo’ti. evaṃ bhāvitā kho, bhikkhave, aniccasaññā evaṃ bahulīkatā sabbaṃ kāmarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanatī”ti.

And how, bhikkhus, is the perception of impermanence developed and cultivated so that it eliminates all sensual lust, eliminates all lust for existence, eliminates all ignorance, and uproots all conceit ‘I am’? ‘Such is form, such its origin, such its passing away; such is feeling, such its origin, such its passing away; such is perception, such its origin, such its passing away; such are volitional formations, such their origin, such their passing away; such is consciousness, such its origin, such its passing away’: that is how the perception of impermanence is developed and cultivated so that it eliminates all sensual lust, eliminates all lust for existence, eliminates all ignorance, and uproots all conceit ‘I am.’


SN 35.79

— “katamo pana, bhante, eko dhammo yassa pahānā bhikkhuno avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjatī”ti?

— “And what is that one thing, venerable sir, through the abandoning of which ignorance is abandoned by a bhikkhu and true knowledge arises?”

— “avijjā kho, bhikkhu, eko dhammo yassa pahānā bhikkhuno avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjatī”ti.

— “Ignorance, bhikkhu, is that one thing through the abandoning of which ignorance is abandoned by a bhikkhu and true knowledgearises.”

— “kathaṃ pana, bhante, jānato, kathaṃ passato bhikkhuno avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjatī”ti?

— “But, venerable sir, how should one know, how should one see, for ignorance to be abandoned by him and true knowledge to arise?”

— “cakkhuṃ kho, bhikkhu, aniccato jānato passato avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjati. rūpe aniccato jānato passato avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjati. cakkhuviññāṇaṃ... cakkhusamphassaṃ... yampidaṃ cakkhusamphassapaccayā uppajjati vedayitaṃ sukhaṃ vā dukkhaṃ vā adukkhamasukhaṃ vā tampi aniccato jānato passato avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjati. sotaṃ... sadde... sotaviññāṇaṃ... sotasamphassaṃ... yampidaṃ sotasamphassapaccayā uppajjati... ghānaṃ... gandhe... ghānaviññāṇaṃ... ghānasamphassaṃ... yampidaṃ ghānasamphassapaccayā uppajjati... jivhaṃ... rase... jivhaviññāṇaṃ... jivhasamphassaṃ... yampidaṃ jivhasamphassapaccayā uppajjati... kāyaṃ... phoṭṭhabbe... kāyaviññāṇaṃ... kāyasamphassaṃ... yampidaṃ kāyasamphassapaccayā uppajjati... manaṃ... dhamme... manoviññāṇaṃ... manosamphassaṃ... yampidaṃ manosamphassapaccayā uppajjati... vedayitaṃ sukhaṃ vā dukkhaṃ vā adukkhamasukhaṃ vā tampi aniccato jānato passato avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjati. evaṃ kho, bhikkhu, jānato evaṃ passato avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjatī”ti.

— “Bhikkhu, when one knows and sees the eye as impermanent, ignorance is abandoned and true knowledge arises. When one knows and sees forms as impermanent … When one knows and sees eye-consciousness... eye-contact... whatever feeling arises with eye-contact as condition—whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-norpleasant... the ear... sounds... ear-consciousness... ear-contact... whatever feeling arises with ear-contact... the nose... smells... nose-consciousness... nose-contact... whatever feeling arises with nose-contact... the tongue... tastes... tongue-consciousness... tongue-contact... whatever feeling arises with tongue-contact... the body... touches... body-consciousness... body-contact... whatever feeling arises with body-contact... the mind... mental objects... mind-consciousness... mind-contact... When one knows and sees as impermanent whatever feeling arises with mind-contact as condition—whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-norpleasant—ignorance is abandoned and true knowledge arises. When one knows and sees thus, bhikkhu, ignorance is abandoned and true knowledge arises.”


SN 35.80

“kathaṃ pana, bhante, jānato, kathaṃ passato avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjatī”ti?

“But, venerable sir, how should one know, how should one see, for ignorance to be abandoned by him and true knowledge to arise?”

“idha, bhikkhu, bhikkhuno sutaṃ hoti: ‘sabbe dhammā nālaṃ abhinivesāyā’ti. evañcetaṃ, bhikkhu, bhikkhuno sutaṃ hoti: ‘sabbe dhammā nālaṃ abhinivesāyā’ti, so sabbaṃ dhammaṃ abhijānāti, sabbaṃ dhammaṃ abhiññāya sabbaṃ dhammaṃ parijānāti, sabbaṃ dhammaṃ pariññāya sabbanimittāni aññato passati, cakkhuṃ aññato passati, rūpe... cakkhuviññāṇaṃ... cakkhusamphassaṃ... yampidaṃ cakkhusamphassapaccayā uppajjati vedayitaṃ sukhaṃ vā dukkhaṃ vā adukkhamasukhaṃ vā tampi aññato passati... sotaṃ... sadde... sotaviññāṇaṃ... sotasamphassaṃ... yampidaṃ sotasamphassapaccayā uppajjati... ghānaṃ... gandhe... ghānaviññāṇaṃ... ghānasamphassaṃ... yampidaṃ ghānasamphassapaccayā uppajjati... jivhaṃ... rase... jivhaviññāṇaṃ... jivhasamphassaṃ... yampidaṃ jivhasamphassapaccayā uppajjati... kāyaṃ... phoṭṭhabbe... kāyaviññāṇaṃ... kāyasamphassaṃ... yampidaṃ kāyasamphassapaccayā uppajjati... manaṃ aññato passati, dhamme... manoviññāṇaṃ... manosamphassaṃ... yampidaṃ manosamphassapaccayā uppajjati vedayitaṃ sukhaṃ vā dukkhaṃ vā adukkhamasukhaṃ vā tampi aññato passati. evaṃ kho, bhikkhu, jānato evaṃ passato bhikkhuno avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjatī”ti.

“Here, bhikkhu, a bhikkhu has heard, ‘Nothing is worth adhering to.’ When a bhikkhu has heard, ‘Nothing is worth adhering to,’ he directly knows everything. Having directly known everything, he fully understands everything. Having fully understood everything, he sees all signs differently. He sees the eye differently, he sees forms differently... eye-consciousness... eye-contact... whatever feeling arises with eye-contact... the nose... smells... nose-consciousness... nose-contact... whatever feeling arises with nose-contact... the tongue... tastes... tongue-consciousness... tongue-contact... whatever feeling arises with tongue-contact... the body... touches... body-consciousness... body-contact... whatever feeling arises with body-contact... the mind... mental objects... mind-consciousness... mind-contact... whatever feeling arises with mind-contact as condition ... that too he sees differently. When one knows and sees thus, bhikkhu, ignorance is abandoned and true knowledge arises.”


Samādhi:


AN 6.24

“chahi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bhikkhu himavantaṃ pabbatarājaṃ padāleyya, ko pana vādo chavāya avijjāya! katamehi chahi?

“Bhikkhus, possessing six qualities, a bhikkhu could break the Himalayas, the king of mountains, how much more then [that] low ignorance! What six?

idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu samādhissa samāpattikusalo hoti,

Here, a bhikkhu is skilled in attaining of concentration;

samādhissa ṭhitikusalo hoti,

skilled in maintaining concentration;

samādhissa vuṭṭhānakusalo hoti,

skilled in emerging from concentration;

samādhissa kallitakusalo hoti,

skilled in fitness for concentration;

samādhissa gocarakusalo hoti,

skilled in the area of concentration;

samādhissa abhinīhārakusalo hoti.

skilled in resolution regarding concentration.


Paññā:


AN 2.32

vipassanā, bhikkhave, bhāvitā kamatthamanubhoti? paññā bhāvīyati. paññā bhāvitā kamatthamanubhoti? yā avijjā sā pahīyati.

When insight is developed, what purpose does it serve? Discernment is developed. And when discernment is developed, what purpose does it serve? Ignorance is abandoned.


Abhiññā:


SN 45.159

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā? avijjā ca bhavataṇhā ca

What, monks, are the states to be abandoned with higher knowledge? They are ignorance and the desire for [further] becoming.


Cultivating appamāda and being ātāpī:


MN 4

ayaṃ kho me, brāhmaṇa, rattiyā paṭhame yāme paṭhamā vijjā adhigatā, avijjā vihatā vijjā uppannā, tamo vihato āloko uppanno, yathā taṃ appamattassa ātāpino pahitattassa viharato.

This was the first knowledge I attained in the first watch of the night. Ignorance was destroyed; knowledge arose; darkness was destroyed; light arose — as happens in one who is heedful, ardent, & resolute.



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āvuso: friend - usually in conversation between bhikkhus, a form of polite address 'friend, brother Sir', although quite informal since it is used by the disciple as well as the master in return.



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āyasmā: venerable - lit: old. Used as a respectful appellation of a bhikkhu of some standing.



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āyatana: sphere, stretch, extent, reach, sphere of perception. The word appears mainly in two contexts:

1) as refering both to the six physical sense organs, i.e. cakkhu, sota, ghāna, jivhā, kāya, mana, as well as to their respective objects, i.e. rūpa visible objects, sadda sounds, gandha smells, rasa tastes, phoṭṭhabba tangible bodily phenomena, dhamma mental phenomena.

2) to designate each of the four formless jhānas.



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ayoniso manasikāra:

inappropiate attention, unwise reflection.

The most substantial characterization of ayoniso manasikāra is provided in the Sabbāsavā Sutta:


MN 2

“so evaṃ ayoniso manasi karoti: ‘ahosiṃ nu kho ahaṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? na nu kho ahosiṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ nu kho ahosiṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? kathaṃ nu kho ahosiṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ hutvā kiṃ ahosiṃ nu kho ahaṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? bhavissāmi nu kho ahaṃ anāgatamaddhānaṃ? na nu kho bhavissāmi anāgatamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ nu kho bhavissāmi anāgatamaddhānaṃ? kathaṃ nu kho bhavissāmi anāgatamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ hutvā kiṃ bhavissāmi nu kho ahaṃ anāgatamaddhānan’ti? etarahi vā paccuppannamaddhānaṃ ajjhattaṃ kathaṃkathī hoti: ‘ahaṃ nu khosmi? no nu khosmi? kiṃ nu khosmi? kathaṃ nu khosmi? ayaṃ nu kho satto kuto āgato? so kuhiṃ gāmī bhavissatī’ti?

This is how he attends inappropriately: 'Was I in the past? Was I not in the past? What was I in the past? How was I in the past? Having been what, what was I in the past? Shall I be in the future? Shall I not be in the future? What shall I be in the future? How shall I be in the future? Having been what, what shall I be in the future?' Or else he is inwardly perplexed about the immediate present: 'Am I? Am I not? What am I? How am I? Where has this being come from? Where is it bound?'

“tassa evaṃ ayoniso manasikaroto channaṃ diṭṭhīnaṃ aññatarā diṭṭhi uppajjati. ‘atthi me attā’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; ‘natthi me attā’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; ‘attanāva attānaṃ sañjānāmī’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; ‘attanāva anattānaṃ sañjānāmī’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; ‘anattanāva attānaṃ sañjānāmī’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; atha vā panassa evaṃ diṭṭhi hoti: ‘yo me ayaṃ attā vado vedeyyo tatra tatra kalyāṇapāpakānaṃ kammānaṃ vipākaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti so kho pana me ayaṃ attā nicco dhuvo sassato avipariṇāmadhammo sassatisamaṃ tatheva ṭhassatī’ti. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, diṭṭhigataṃ diṭṭhigahanaṃ diṭṭhikantāraṃ diṭṭhivisūkaṃ diṭṭhivipphanditaṃ diṭṭhisaṃyojanaṃ. diṭṭhisaṃyojanasaṃyutto, bhikkhave, assutavā puthujjano na parimuccati jātiyā jarāya maraṇena sokehi paridevehi dukkhehi domanassehi upāyāsehi; ‘na parimuccati dukkhasmā’ti vadāmi.

As he attends inappropriately in this way, one of six kinds of view arises in him: The view I have a self arises in him as true & established, or the view I have no self... or the view It is precisely by means of self that I perceive self... or the view It is precisely by means of self that I perceive not-self... or the view It is precisely by means of not-self that I perceive self arises in him as true & established, or else he has a view like this: This very self of mine — the knower that is sensitive here & there to the ripening of good & bad actions — is the self of mine that is constant, everlasting, eternal, not subject to change, and will stay just as it is for eternity. This is called a thicket of views, a wilderness of views, a contortion of views, a writhing of views, a fetter of views. Bound by a fetter of views, the uninstructed run-of-the-mill person is not freed from birth, aging, & death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair. He is not freed, I tell you, from suffering & stress.


According to the commentary, ayoniso manasikāra is attention or reflection that constitutes the wrong means or the wrong track (uppatha), that is contrary to the truth, as for example the vipallāsas: attention to the impermanent as permanent, the unpleasant as pleasant, what is not self as self, and what is foul as beautiful.

The Akusalavitakka Sutta also provides a connection with the wrong type of vitakkas:


SN 9.11

ekaṃ samayaṃ aññataro bhikkhu kosalesu viharati aññatarasmiṃ vanasaṇḍe. tena kho pana samayena so bhikkhu divāvihāragato pāpake akusale vitakke vitakketi, seyyathidaṃ kāmavitakkaṃ, byāpādavitakkaṃ, vihiṃsāvitakkaṃ. atha kho yā tasmiṃ vanasaṇḍe adhivatthā devatā tassa bhikkhuno anukampikā atthakāmā taṃ bhikkhuṃ saṃvejetukāmā yena so bhikkhu tenupasaṅkami; upasaṅkamitvā taṃ bhikkhuṃ gāthāhi ajjhabhāsi:

On one occasion a certain monk was dwelling among the Kosalans in a forest thicket. Now at that time, he spent the day's abiding thinking evil, unskillful thoughts: i.e., thoughts of sensuality, thoughts of ill will, thoughts of doing harm. Then the devata inhabiting the forest thicket, feeling sympathy for the monk, desiring his benefit, desiring to bring him to his senses, approached him and addressed him with this verse:

“ayoniso manasikārā, so vitakkehi khajjasi.

From inappropriate attention, you're being chewed by your thoughts.


At AN 5.151, ayoniso manasikāra is juxtaposed with an·ekagga·citta (see ekagga·tā for an antonym) in one single item as an attitude preventing one who listens to the Dhamma from realizing it.

Ayoniso manasikāra prevents wholesome states from arising:

The seven bojjhaṅgas:


AN 1.74

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannā vā bojjhaṅgā nuppajjanti uppannā vā bojjhaṅgā na bhāvanāpāripūriṃ gacchanti yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, ayonisomanasikāro.

Bhikkhus, I do not see any other thing because of which unarisen factors of awakening do not arise and arisen factors of enlightenment do not go to their completion through development so much as inappropriate attention.


Sati·sampajañña:


AN 10.61

asatāsampajaññampāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sāhāraṃ vadāmi, no anāhāraṃ. ko cāhāro asatāsampajaññassa? ‘ayonisomanasikāro’’tissa vacanīyaṃ.

Lack of mindfulness and clear comprehension, too, I say, has a nutriment; it is not without nutriment. And what is the nutriment for lack of mindfulness and clear comprehension? It should be said: careless attention.


Ayoniso manasikāra also gives rise to other akusala dhammas:


AN 1.66

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannā vā akusalā dhammā uppajjanti uppannā vā kusalā dhammā parihāyanti yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, ayonisomanasikāro.

Bhikkhus, I do not see any other thing because of which unarisen unwholesome states arise and arisen wholesome states decline, so much as inappropriate attention.


In particular, in conjunction with other phenomena, it gives rise to the five nīvaraṇas:


SN 46.51

ko ca, bhikkhave, āhāro anuppannassa vā kāmacchandassa uppādāya, uppannassa vā kāmacchandassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya? atthi, bhikkhave, subhanimittaṃ. tattha ayonisomanasikārabahulīkāro: ayamāhāro anuppannassa vā kāmacchandassa uppādāya, uppannassa vā kāmacchandassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya.

And what is the food for the arising of unarisen sensual desire, or for the growth & increase of sensual desire once it has arisen? There is the theme of beauty. To foster inappropriate attention to it: This is the food for the arising of unarisen sensual desire, or for the growth & increase of sensual desire once it has arisen.

“ko ca, bhikkhave, āhāro anuppannassa vā byāpādassa uppādāya, uppannassa vā byāpādassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya? atthi, bhikkhave, paṭighanimittaṃ. tattha ayonisomanasikārabahulīkāro: ayamāhāro anuppannassa vā byāpādassa uppādāya, uppannassa vā byāpādassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya.

And what is the food for the arising of unarisen ill will, or for the growth & increase of ill will once it has arisen? There is the theme of resistance. To foster inappropriate attention to it: This is the food for the arising of unarisen ill will, or for the growth & increase of ill will once it has arisen.

“ko ca, bhikkhave, āhāro anuppannassa vā thinamiddhassa uppādāya, uppannassa vā thinamiddhassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya? atthi, bhikkhave, arati tandi vijambhitā bhattasammado cetaso ca līnattaṃ. tattha ayonisomanasikārabahulīkāro: ayamāhāro anuppannassa vā thinamiddhassa uppādāya, uppannassa vā thinamiddhassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya.

And what is the food for the arising of unarisen sloth & drowsiness, or for the growth & increase of sloth & drowsiness once it has arisen? There are boredom, weariness, yawning, drowsiness after a meal, & sluggishness of awareness. To foster inappropriate attention to them: This is the food for the arising of unarisen sloth & drowsiness, or for the growth & increase of sloth & drowsiness once it has arisen.

“ko ca, bhikkhave, āhāro anuppannassa vā uddhaccakukkuccassa uppādāya, uppannassa vā uddhaccakukkuccassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya? atthi, bhikkhave, cetaso avūpasamo. tattha ayonisomanasikārabahulīkāro: ayamāhāro anuppannassa vā uddhaccakukkuccassa uppādāya, uppannassa vā uddhaccakukkuccassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya.

And what is the food for the arising of unarisen restlessness & anxiety, or for the growth & increase of restlessness & anxiety once it has arisen? There is non-stillness of awareness. To foster inappropriate attention to that: This is the food for the arising of unarisen restlessness & anxiety, or for the growth & increase of restlessness & anxiety once it has arisen.


When it comes to vicikicchā, ayoniso manasikāra is the cause per se:


AN 1.15

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannā vā vicikicchā uppajjati uppannā vā vicikicchā bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, ayonisomanasikāro.

Bhikkhus, I do not see any other thing because of which unarisen doubt arises and arisen doubt increases and multiplies, so much as inappropriate attention.


Ayoniso manasikāra is also the direct cause for the arising of micchā·diṭṭhi:


AN 1.310

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannā vā micchādiṭṭhi uppajjati uppannā vā micchādiṭṭhi pavaḍḍhati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, ayonisomanasikāro.

Bhikkhus, I do not see any other thing because of which unarisen wrong view arises and arisen wrong view increases and multiplies, so much as inappropriate attention.


It generally leads to 'great harm' (mahato anatthāya):


AN 1.90

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yo evaṃ mahato anatthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, ayoniso manasikāro.

Bhikkhus, I do not see any other thing that leads to such great harm as inappropriate attention.


It leads particularly to the disappearance of the Dhamma (saddhammassa sammosāya antaradhānāya):


AN 1.122

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yo evaṃ saddhammassa sammosāya antaradhānāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, ayonisomanasikāro.

Bhikkhus, I do not see any other thing that leads to the decline and disappearance of the good Dhamma, so much as inappropriate attention.


According to AN 10.76, ayoniso manasikāra rests particularly on three phenomena: forgetfulness (muṭṭhasacca), lack of sampajañña, and mental unrest (cetaso vikkhepa).



Bodhi leaf

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B
A | B | C | D | E | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | R | S | T | U | V | Y

bala
bāla
bhadante
Bhagavā
bhante
bhava
bhāvanā
bhavarāga
bhavataṇhā
bhesajja
bhikkhu
bhikkhuni
bho
bhojane mattaññutā
bodhi
bodhipakkhiyā dhammā
bodhisatta
bojjhaṅga
Brahmā
brahmacariya
brahmakāyika
Brahmavihāra
Buddha
Buddhānussati
Buddhe aveccappasāda
byāpāda



bala:

power, strength.

The word is used in a wide variety of meanings. In the general sense, it means physical strength, healthiness, power or authority (AN 3.69), sometimes intellectual authority (e.g. a powerful argument, MN 11), moral strength, or determination (as in the compound bala·vīriya).

♦ The most frequent list of balas is as follows:

1. saddhā
2. vīriya
3. sati
4. samādhi
5. paññā

Each item is defined in the Vitthata Sutta:


AN 5.14

Pañc·imāni, bhikkhave, balāni. Katamāni pañca? Saddhā-balaṃ, vīriya-balaṃ, sati-balaṃ, samādhi-balaṃ, paññā-balaṃ.

There are, bhikkhus, these five powers. Which five? The power of conviction, the power of persistence, the power of mindfulness, the power of concentration, the power of discernment.

Katama·ñca, bhikkhave, saddhā-balaṃ? Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako saddho hoti, saddahati Tathāgatassa bodhiṃ: 'itipi so Bhagavā arahaṃ sammā-Sambuddho vijjā-caraṇa-sampanno sugato lokavidū anuttaro purisa-damma-sārathi satthā deva-manussānaṃ Buddho Bhagavā' ti. Idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, saddhā-balaṃ.

Now what is the power of conviction? There is the case where a monk, a disciple of the noble ones, has conviction, is convinced of the Tathagata's Awakening: 'Indeed, the Blessed One is worthy and rightly self-awakened, consummate in knowledge & conduct, well-gone, an expert with regard to the world, unexcelled as a trainer for those people fit to be tamed, the Teacher of divine & human beings, awakened, blessed.' This is called the power of conviction.

Katama·ñca, bhikkhave, vīriya-balaṃ? Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako āraddha-vīriyo viharati akusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ pahānāya, kusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ upasampadāya thāmavā daḷhaparakkamo anikkhittadhuro kusalesu dhammesu. Idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, vīriya-balaṃ.

And what is the power of persistence? There is the case where a disciple of the noble ones keeps his persistence aroused for abandoning unskillful mental qualities and taking on skillful mental qualities. He is steadfast, solid in his effort, not shirking his duties with regard to skillful mental qualities. This is called the power of persistence.

Katama·ñca, bhikkhave, sati-balaṃ? Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako satimā hoti paramena sati-nepakkena samannāgato, cira-katam-pi cira-bhāsitam-pi saritā anussaritā. Idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, sati-balaṃ.

And what is the power of mindfulness? There is the case where a monk, a disciple of the noble ones, is mindful, highly meticulous, remembering & able to call to mind even things that were done & said long ago. This is called the power of mindfulness.

Katama·ñca, bhikkhave, samādhi-balaṃ? Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako... paṭhamaṃ jhānaṃ... dutiyaṃ jhānaṃ... tatiyaṃ jhānaṃ... catutthaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati. Idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, samādhi-balaṃ.

And what is the power of concentration? There is the case where a monk... enters & remains in the first jhana... the second jhan... the third jhana... the fourth jhana... This is called the power of concentration.

Katama·ñca, bhikkhave, paññā-balaṃ? Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako paññavā hoti uday-attha-gāminiyā paññāya samannāgato ariyāya nibbedhikāya sammā dukkha'k'khaya-gāminiyā. Idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, paññā-balaṃ.

And what is the power of discernment? There is the case where a disciple of the noble ones is discerning, endowed with discernment of arising & passing away — noble, penetrating, leading to the right ending of stress. This is called the power of discernment.


Alternative definitions of the power of energy and the power of wisdom as found at AN 9.5 will be provided below.

This group of five balas is part of a set of 37 dhammas which are often listed together (e.g. at AN 10.90, SN 22.81) and are sometimes called the bodhi·pakkhiyā dhammā in popular culture.

In the Daṭṭhabba Sutta, it is said that these balas are 'to be seen' (daṭṭhabba) each in its domain of mastery:


AN 5.15

“pañcimāni, bhikkhave, balāni. katamāni pañca? saddhābalaṃ, vīriyabalaṃ, satibalaṃ, samādhibalaṃ, paññābalaṃ.

Bhikkhus, there are these five powers. What five? The power of faith, the power of energy, the power of mindfulness, the power of concentration, and the power of wisdom.

kattha ca, bhikkhave, saddhābalaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ? catūsu sotāpattiyaṅgesu...

And where, bhikkhus, is the power of faith to be seen? The power of faith is to be seen in the four factors of stream-entry...

kattha ca, bhikkhave, vīriyabalaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ? catūsu sammappadhānesu...

And where is the power of energy to be seen? The power of energy is to be seen in the four right strivings...

kattha ca, bhikkhave, satibalaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ? catūsu satipaṭṭhānesu...

And where is the power of mindfulness to be seen? The power of mindfulness is to be seen in the four establishments of mindfulness...

kattha ca, bhikkhave, samādhibalaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ? catūsu jhānesu...

And where is the power of concentration to be seen? The power of concentration is to be seen in the four jhānas...

kattha ca, bhikkhave, paññābalaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ? catūsu ariyasaccesu...

And where is the power of wisdom to be seen? The power of wisdom is to be seen in the four noble truths...


This set of five balas has its own entire saṃyutta (SN 50), which consists essentially in repetition series. At SN 50.1, these five balas lead towards nibbāna just as the river Ganges slants, slopes, and inclines towards the east (seyyathāpi gaṅgā nadī pācīna·ninnā pācīna·poṇā pācīna·pabbhārā).

The enumeration of each of these balas is sometimes punctuated by four different formulas. The first one is found for example at SN 50.1 and is in fact mainly used with the bojjhaṅgas, and occasionally with (spiritual) indriyas: 'based upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation, maturing in release' (viveka·nissita virāga·nissita nirodha·nissita vossagga·pariṇāmi).

The second formula can be found at SN 50.13 and says: 'which has the removal of avidity as its final goal, the removal of hatred as its final goal, the removal of delusion as its final goal' (rāga·vinaya·pariyosāna dosa·vinaya·pariyosāna moha·vinaya·pariyosāna).

The third one is also found for example at 50.13, and it says: 'which has the Deathless as its ground, the Deathless as its destination, the Deathless as its final goal' (amat·ogadha amata·parāyana amata·pariyosāna).

The fourth is also found at 50.13, and it says: 'which slants towards Nibbāna, slopes towards Nibbāna, inclines towards Nibbāna' (nibbāna·ninna nibbāna·poṇa nibbāna·pabbhāra).

These five balas are said to be produced on the basis of other phenomena, among which sīla:


SN 50.23

seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, ye keci balakaraṇīyā kammantā karīyanti, sabbe te pathaviṃ nissāya pathaviyaṃ patiṭṭhāya evamete balakaraṇīyā kammantā karīyanti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sīlaṃ nissāya sīle patiṭṭhāya pañcāni balāni bhāveti pañcāni balāni bahulīkaroti.

Just as, bhikkhus, whatever actions are to be performed with strength are all performed on dependence on the earth, supported by the earth; in the same way, bhikkhus, it is on dependence on virtue, supported by virtue, that a bhikkhu develops the five powers, that he cultivates the five powers.


SN 50.24

seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, ye kecime bījagāmabhūtagāmā vuḍḍhiṃ virūḷhiṃ vepullaṃ āpajjanti, sabbe te pathaviṃ nissāya pathaviyaṃ patiṭṭhāya evamete bījagāmabhūtagāmā vuḍḍhiṃ virūḷhiṃ vepullaṃ āpajjanti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sīlaṃ nissāya sīle patiṭṭhāya pañcāni balāni bhāvento pañcāni balāni bahulīkaronto vuḍḍhiṃ virūḷhiṃ vepullaṃ pāpuṇāti dhammesu.

Just as, bhikkhus, whatever kinds of seed and plant life come to development, growth, and plenitude, all come to development, growth, and plenitude on dependence on the earth, supported by the earth; in the same way, bhikkhus, on dependence on virtue, supported by virtue, a bhikkhu developing the five powers, cultivating the five powers, comes to development, growth, and plenitude in [wholesome] mental states.


Appamāda is also said to be a basis for the development of these balas:


SN 50.13

“yāvatā, bhikkhave, sattā apadā vā dvipadā vā catuppadā vā bahuppadā vā rūpino vā arūpino vā saññino vā asaññino vā nevasaññīnāsaññino vā, tathāgato tesaṃ aggamakkhāyati arahaṃ sammāsambuddho; evameva kho, bhikkhave, ye keci kusalā dhammā, sabbe te appamādamūlakā appamādasamosaraṇā; appamādo tesaṃ dhammānaṃ aggamakkhāyati. appamattassetaṃ, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno pāṭikaṅkhaṃ pañcāni balāni bhāvessati pañcāni balāni bahulīkarissati.

To the extent that there are animals: footless, two-footed, four-footed, many footed; with form or formless; percipient, non-percipient, or neither percipient nor non-percipient, the Tathagata, worthy & rightly self-awakened, is reckoned the foremost among them. In the same way, all skillful qualities are rooted in heedfulness, converge in heedfulness, and heedfulness is reckoned the foremost among them. When a bhikkhu is heedful, it can be expected that he will develop the five powers, that he will cultivate the five powers.


Between SN 50.35 and SN 50.54, these five balas are said to lead to the direct knowledge (abhiññā), full understanding (pariññā), complete destruction (parikkhaya), and abandoning (pahāna) of various phenomena: the three discriminations (vidhā), i.e. 'I am superior' (‘seyyo·ham·asmī’ti), 'I am equal' (‘sadiso·ham·asmī’ti), 'I am inferior' (hīno·ham·asmī’ti); the three searches (esanā), i.e. the search for sensuality (kām·esanā), the search for [a good] existence (bhav·esanā), the search for the brahmic life (brahmacariy·esanā); the three āsavā; the three bhavā; the three sufferings (dukkhatā), i.e. the suffering from pain (dukkha·dukkhatā), the suffering from Constructions (saṅkhāra·dukkhatā), the suffering from change (vipariṇāma·dukkhatā); the three akusalamulā; the three types of vedanā; kāma, diṭṭhi and avijjā; the four upādānā; abhijjhā, byāpāda, sīla·bbata parāmāsa and adherence to [the view] 'This [alone] is the truth' (idaṃ·sacc·ābhinivesa); the seven anusayā; the five kāma·guṇā; the five nīvaraṇā; the five upādāna·kkhandhas; the ten saṃyojanā.

These five balas represent a tool to remove akusalā dhammā. A number of similes illustrating this point are given in the Bala Saṃyutta: at SN 50.27, akusalā dhammā are given up by the mind like a pot turned upside down 'gives up' its water; at SN 50.30, they are disintegrated like a cloud providing rain disintegrates a dust storm; at SN 50.31, they are dispersed like a strong wind disperses a great cloud giving rain; at SN 50.32, they are like the ropes on a ship that rot under inclement weather. At SN 50.34, people, powerful or not, wishing to convince a bhikkhu cultivating these five balas to abandon monkhood by offering him wealth will be no more successful than people wishing to change the direction of the Ganges, because his mind is inclined to seclusion.


SN 50.33

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, āgantukāgāraṃ. tattha puratthimāyapi disāya āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, pacchimāyapi disāya āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, uttarāyapi disāya āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, dakkhiṇāyapi disāya āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, khattiyāpi āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, brāhmaṇāpi āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, vessāpi āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, suddāpi āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu pañcāni balāni bhāvento pañcāni balāni bahulīkaronto ye dhammā abhiññā pariññeyyā, te dhamme abhiññā parijānāti, ye dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā, te dhamme abhiññā pajahati, ye dhammā abhiññā sacchikātabbā, te dhamme abhiññā sacchikaroti, ye dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā, te dhamme abhiññā bhāveti.

Suppose, monks, there is a guest-house. Travelers come from the east, the west, the north, the south to lodge here: nobles and Brahmans, merchants and serfs. In the same way, monks, a monk who cultivates the five powers, who assiduously practices the five powers, comprehends with higher knowledge those states that are to be so comprehended, abandons with higher knowledge those states that are to be so abandoned, comes to experience with higher knowledge those states that are to be so experienced, and cultivates with higher knowledge those states that are to be so cultivated.

“katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pariññeyyā? pañcupādānakkhandhātissa vacanīyaṃ...

What, monks, are the states to be comprehended with higher knowledge? They are the five groups of clinging...

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā? avijjā ca bhavataṇhā ca...

What, monks, are the states to be abandoned with higher knowledge? They are ignorance and the desire for [further] becoming...

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā sacchikātabbā? vijjā ca vimutti ca...

And what, monks, are the states to be experienced with higher knowledge? They are knowledge and liberation...

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā? samatho ca vipassanā ca.

And what, monk, are the states to be cultivated with higher knowledge? They are calm and insight.


These five balas seem to be identical with the five spiritual indriyas, being just a different way to explain the same thing, as is explained in the Sāketa Sutta:


SN 48.43

Yaṃ, bhikkhave, saddhindriyaṃ taṃ saddhābalaṃ, yaṃ saddhābalaṃ taṃ saddhindriyaṃ; yaṃ vīriyindriyaṃ taṃ vīriyabalaṃ, yaṃ vīriyabalaṃ taṃ vīriyindriyaṃ; yaṃ satindriyaṃ taṃ satibalaṃ, yaṃ satibalaṃ taṃ satindriyaṃ; yaṃ samādhindriyaṃ taṃ samādhibalaṃ, yaṃ samādhibalaṃ taṃ samādhindriyaṃ; yaṃ paññindriyaṃ taṃ paññābalaṃ, yaṃ paññābalaṃ taṃ paññindriyaṃ.

That, bhikkhus, which is the faculty of conviction is the power of conviction, and that which is the power of conviction is the faculty of conviction. That which is the faculty of energy is the power of energy, and that which is the power of energy is the faculty of energy. That which is the faculty of mindfulness is the power of mindfulness, and that which is the power of mindfulness is the faculty of mindfulness. That which is the faculty of samādhi is the power of samādhi, and that which is the power of samādhi is the faculty of samādhi. That which is the faculty of discernment is the power of discernment, and that which is the power of discernment is the faculty of discernment.

Seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, nadī pācīnaninnā pācīnapoṇā pācīnapabbhārā, tassa majjhe dīpo. Atthi, bhikkhave, pariyāyo yaṃ pariyāyaṃ āgamma tassā nadiyā eko soto tveva saṅkhyaṃ gacchati. Atthi pana, bhikkhave, pariyāyo yaṃ pariyāyaṃ āgamma tassā nadiyā dve sotāni tveva saṅkhyaṃ gacchanti.

Just as, bhikkhus, if there was a river flowing, going, leading towards the east, with an island in the middle. There is an analysis according to which the river has only one stream. There is also, bhikkhus, an analysis according to which the river has two streams.


In this set of five balas, paññā is declared at AN 5.16 to be the 'foremost' (aggaṃ), the 'one that maintains all in place' (saṅgāhikaṃ), the 'one that unifies them' (saṅghātaniyaṃ).

Sometimes, as is the case at AN 4.152, this set of five is presented as a set of four, not including paññā. At AN 4.261, it is instead saddhā that is left out.

♦ There is another set of five balas: the trainee powers (sekha·bala), which are described and defined in the Vitthata Sutta:

1. saddhā
2. hirī
3. ottappa
4. vīriya
5. paññā

Each item is defined in the Vitthata Sutta (they are identical with those given at AN 5.14 as quoted above, except for the following):


AN 5.2

pañcimāni, bhikkhave, sekhabalāni. katamāni pañca? saddhābalaṃ, hirībalaṃ, ottappabalaṃ, vīriyabalaṃ, paññābalaṃ...

Bhikkhus, there are these five trainee’s powers. What five? The power of faith, the power of moral shame, the power of moral dread, the power of energy, and the power of wisdom...

“katamañca, bhikkhave, hirībalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako hirimā hoti, hirīyati kāyaduccaritena vacīduccaritena manoduccaritena, hirīyati pāpakānaṃ akusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ samāpattiyā. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, hirībalaṃ.

And what is the power of moral shame? Here, a noble disciple has a sense of moral shame; he is ashamed of bodily, verbal, and mental misconduct; he is ashamed of acquiring evil, unwholesome qualities. This is called the power of moral shame.

“katamañca, bhikkhave, ottappabalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako ottappī hoti, ottappati kāyaduccaritena vacīduccaritena manoduccaritena, ottappati pāpakānaṃ akusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ samāpattiyā. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, ottappabalaṃ.

And what is the power of moral dread? Here, a noble disciple dreads wrongdoing; he dreads bodily, verbal, and mental misconduct; he dreads acquiring evil, unwholesome qualities. This is called the power of moral dread.


These same five balas are also said to be the Tathagata's powers (tathāgata·bala) in the Ananussuta Sutta:


AN 5.11

pañcimāni, bhikkhave, tathāgatassa tathāgatabalāni, yehi balehi samannāgato tathāgato āsabhaṃ ṭhānaṃ paṭijānāti, parisāsu sīhanādaṃ nadati, brahmacakkaṃ pavatteti. katamāni pañca? saddhābalaṃ, hirībalaṃ, ottappabalaṃ, vīriyabalaṃ, paññābalaṃ.

There are these five Tathāgata’s powers that the Tathāgata has, possessing which he claims the place of the chief bull, roars his lion’s roar in the assemblies, and sets in motion the brahma wheel. What five? The power of faith, the power of moral shame, the power of moral dread, the power of energy, and the power of wisdom.


As was the case with the other set of five balas, paññā is declared at AN 5.12 to be the 'foremost' (aggaṃ), the 'one that maintains all in place' (saṅgāhikaṃ), the 'one that unifies them' (saṅghātaniyaṃ).

♦ We find sometimes these two sets of five balas mashed up in one set of seven, which is described for example in the Vitthata Sutta:


AN 7.4

“sattimāni, bhikkhave, balāni. katamāni satta? saddhābala, vīriyabalaṃ, hirībalaṃ, ottappabalaṃ, satibalaṃ, samādhibalaṃ, paññābalaṃ.

There are, bhikkhus, these seven powers. Which seven? The power of conviction, the power of energy, the power of conscientiousness, the power of scruple, the power of mindfulness, the power of concentration, and the power of discernment.


The definitions that follow in that same sutta are identical to those we have seen above in the two sets of five.

♦ Several variant sets of four balas are given in the Book of Fours of the Aṅguttara Nikāya:

AN 4.154 lists sati, samādhi, anavajja and congeniality (saṅgaha).

AN 4.155 lists reflection (paṭisaṅkhāna), bhāvanā, anavajja and congeniality (saṅgaha).

The Bala Sutta defines another set of four balas:


AN 9.5

“cattārimāni, bhikkhave, balāni. katamāni cattāri? paññābalaṃ, vīriyabalaṃ, anavajjabalaṃ, saṅgāhabalaṃ.

There are, bhikkhus, these four powers. Which four? The power of discernment, the power of energy, the power of faultlessness, and the power of congeniality.

katamañca, bhikkhave, paññābalaṃ? ye dhammā kusalā kusalasaṅkhātā ye dhammā akusalā akusalasaṅkhātā ye dhammā sāvajjā sāvajjasaṅkhātā ye dhammā anavajjā anavajjasaṅkhātā ye dhammā kaṇhā kaṇhasaṅkhātā ye dhammā sukkā sukkasaṅkhātā ye dhammā sevitabbā sevitabbasaṅkhātā ye dhammā asevitabbā asevitabbasaṅkhātā ye dhammā nālamariyā nālamariyasaṅkhātā ye dhammā alamariyā alamariyasaṅkhātā, tyāssa dhammā paññāya vodiṭṭhā honti vocaritā. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, paññābalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of discernment? The mental states that are unskillful and considered as unskillful, the mental states that are skillful and considered as skillful, the mental states that are faulty and considered as faulty, the mental states that are faultless and considered as faultless, the mental states that are evil and considered as evil, the mental states that are pure and considered as pure, the mental states that are to be made use of and considered as to be made use of, the mental states that are not to be made use of and considered as not to be made use of, the mental states that are unsuitable for the noble and considered as unsuitable for the noble, and the mental states that are suitable for the noble and considered as suitable for the noble, have been fully seen with discernment and investigated. This, bhikkhus, is called the power of discernment.

“katamañca, bhikkhave, vīriyabalaṃ? ye dhammā akusalā akusalasaṅkhātā ye dhammā sāvajjā sāvajjasaṅkhātā ye dhammā kaṇhā kaṇhasaṅkhātā ye dhammā asevitabbā asevitabbasaṅkhātā ye dhammā nālamariyā nālamariyasaṅkhātā, tesaṃ dhammānaṃ pahānāya chandaṃ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṃ ārabhati cittaṃ paggaṇhāti padahati. ye dhammā kusalā kusalasaṅkhātā ye dhammā anavajjā anavajjasaṅkhātā ye dhammā sukkā sukkasaṅkhātā ye dhammā sevitabbā sevitabbasaṅkhātā ye dhammā alamariyā alamariyasaṅkhātā, tesaṃ dhammānaṃ paṭilābhāya chandaṃ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṃ ārabhati cittaṃ paggaṇhāti padahati. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, vīriyabalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of energy? One generates desire, exerts himself, arouses energy, exerts his mind and strives to abandon the mental states that are unskillful and considered as unskillful, the mental states that are faulty and considered as faulty, the mental states that are evil and considered as evil, the mental states that are not to be made use of and considered as not to be made use of, and the mental states that are unsuitable for the noble and considered as unsuitable for the noble. One generates desire, exerts himself, arouses energy, exerts his mind and strives to obtain the mental states that are skillful and considered as skillful, the mental states that are faultless and considered as faultless, the mental states that are pure and considered as pure, the mental states that are to be made use of and considered as to be made use of, and the mental states that are suitable for the noble and considered as suitable for the noble. This, bhikkhus, is called the power of energy.

“katamañca, bhikkhave, anavajjabalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako anavajjena kāyakammena samannāgato hoti, anavajjena vacīkammena samannāgato hoti, anavajjena manokammena samannāgato hoti. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, anavajjabalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of faultlessness? Here, a noble disciple is possessed of faultless bodily action, is possessed of faultless verbal action, and is possessed of faultless mental action. This, bhikkhus, is called the power of faultlessness.

“katamañca, bhikkhave, saṅgāhabalaṃ? cattārimāni, bhikkhave, saṅgahavatthūni: dānaṃ, peyyavajjaṃ, atthacariyā, samānattatā. etadaggaṃ, bhikkhave, dānānaṃ yadidaṃ dhammadānaṃ. etadaggaṃ, bhikkhave, peyyavajjānaṃ yadidaṃ atthikassa ohitasotassa punappunaṃ dhammaṃ deseti. etadaggaṃ, bhikkhave, atthacariyānaṃ yadidaṃ assaddhaṃ saddhāsampadāya samādapeti niveseti patiṭṭhāpeti, dussīlaṃ sīlasampadāya samādapeti niveseti patiṭṭhāpeti, macchariṃ cāgasampadāya samādapeti niveseti patiṭṭhāpeti, duppaññaṃ paññāsampadāya samādapeti niveseti patiṭṭhāpeti. etadaggaṃ, bhikkhave, samānattatānaṃ yadidaṃ sotāpanno sotāpannassa samānatto, sakadāgāmī sakadāgāmissa samānatto, anāgāmī anāgāmissa samānatto, arahā arahato samānatto. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, saṅgāhabalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of congeniality? There, are, bhikkhus, these four grounds for congeniality: gift, kind speech, helpful conduct and equality. This, bhikkhus, is the highest of gifts: the gift of the Dhamma. This, bhikkhus, is the highest of kind speeches: teaching the Dhamma again and again to one who is desirous of it and listens attentively. This, bhikkhus, is the highest of helpful conducts: inciting, exhorting and establishing one without conviction in the accomplishment of conviction, inciting, exhorting and establishing an unvirtuous one in the accomplishment of virtue, inciting, exhorting and establishing a stingy one in the accomplishment of generosity, inciting, exhorting and establishing one lacking discernment in the accomplishment of discernment. This, bhikkhus, is the highest of equalities: a stream-enterer is equal to a stream-enterer, a once- returner is equal to a once-returner, a non-returner is equal to a non-returner, and an arahant is equal to an arahant. This, bhikkhus, is called the power of congeniality.

imāni kho, bhikkhave, cattāri balāni.

These, bhikkhus, are the four powers.

“imehi kho, bhikkhave, catūhi balehi samannāgato ariyasāvako pañca bhayāni samatikkanto hoti. katamāni pañca? ājīvikabhayaṃ, asilokabhayaṃ, parisasārajjabhayaṃ, maraṇabhayaṃ, duggatibhayaṃ.

A noble disciple who is possessed of these four powers has transcended five fears. Which five? The fear about his livelihood, the fear of bad reputation, the fear of timidity in assemblies, the fear of death, and the fear of a bad destination.


♦ There are also sets of two balas. The most prominent is that of reflection (paṭisaṅkhāna) and bhāvanā:


AN 2.12

“dvemāni, bhikkhave, balāni. katamāni dve? paṭisaṅkhānabalañca bhāvanābalañca.

There are, bhikkhus, these two powers. Which two? The power of reflection and the power of development.

katamañca, bhikkhave, paṭisaṅkhānabalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco iti paṭisañcikkhati: ‘kāyaduccaritassa kho pāpako vipāko diṭṭhe ceva dhamme abhisamparāyañca, vacīduccaritassa pāpako vipāko diṭṭhe ceva dhamme abhisamparāyañca, manoduccaritassa pāpako vipāko diṭṭhe ceva dhamme abhisamparāyañcā’ti. so iti paṭisaṅkhāya kāyaduccaritaṃ pahāya kāyasucaritaṃ bhāveti, vacīduccaritaṃ pahāya vacīsucaritaṃ bhāveti, manoduccaritaṃ pahāya manosucaritaṃ bhāveti, suddhaṃ attānaṃ pariharati. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, paṭisaṅkhānabalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of reflection? Here, bhikkhus, a certain individual reflects thus: 'Misconduct in body brings bad result in this visible world as well as in existence to come. Misconduct in speech brings bad result in this visible world as well as in existence to come. Misconduct in mind brings bad result in this visible world as well as in existence to come.' Having reflected thus, he abandons misconduct in body and cultivates good conduct in body, he abandons misconduct in speech and cultivates good conduct in speech, he abandons misconduct in mind and cultivates good conduct in mind, and he maintains himself pure. This, bhikkhus, is called the power of reflection.


The bhāvanā·bala is then defined as the seven bojjhaṅgas, each punctuated with the formula: viveka·nissitaṃ virāga·nissitaṃ nirodha-nissitaṃ vossagga·pariṇāmiṃ (based on detachment/ seclusion, based on desirelessness, based on cessation, resulting in release).

At AN 2.13, the bhāvanā·bala is defined as the four jhānas.

AN 2.52 mentions the power of persuasion (saññatti·bala) and the power of favorable disposition (nijjhatti·bala), in the context of an assembly of monks discussing a disciplinary issue (adhikaraṇa). AN 2.171 mentions sati·bala and samādhi·bala.

♦ Two suttas mention the powers of an arahant. The most complete, AN 10.90, mentions:

- Having seen all saṅkhāras as they actually are with proper discernment as impermanent (aniccato sabbe saṅkhārā yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññāya sudiṭṭhā honti).

- Having seen kāma as they actually are with proper discernment as smilar to a pit of glowing embers (aṅgārakāsūpamā kāmā yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññāya sudiṭṭhā honti).

- Being naturally inclined to seclusion, delighting in renunciation, and being completely finished with all states that are a basis for mental impurities (vivekaninnaṃ cittaṃ hoti ... vivekaṭṭhaṃ nekkhammābhirataṃ byantībhūtaṃ sabbaso āsavaṭṭhāniyehi dhammehi).

- The remaining seven items cover the 37 bodhi·pakkhiyā dhammās, taken in groups.

♦ The Tathāgata·balas, outside cases as AN 5.11 mentioned above, are laid out in a completely different version, where they are sometimes enumerated as six, but in their fullest exposition, they are laid out as ten:


AN 10.21

“dasayimāni, bhikkhave, tathāgatassa tathāgatabalāni... katamāni dasa?

Bhikkhus, there are these ten Tathāgata’s powers... What ten?

idha, bhikkhave, tathāgato ṭhānañca ṭhānato aṭṭhānañca aṭṭhānato yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti...

Here, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the possible as possible and the impossible as impossible...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato atītānāgatapaccuppannānaṃ kammasamādānānaṃ ṭhānaso hetuso vipākaṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti...

Again, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the result of the undertaking of kamma past, future, and present in terms of possibilities and causes...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato sabbatthagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti...

Again, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the ways leading everywhere...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato anekadhātuṃ nānādhātuṃ lokaṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti...

Again, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the world with its numerous and diverse elements...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato sattānaṃ nānādhimuttikataṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti...

Again, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the diversity in the dispositions of beings...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato parasattānaṃ parapuggalānaṃ indriyaparopariyattaṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti...

Again, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the superior or inferior condition of the faculties of other beings and persons...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato jhānavimokkhasamādhisamāpattīnaṃ saṃkilesaṃ vodānaṃ vuṭṭhānaṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti...

Again, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the defilement, the cleansing, and the emergence in regard to the jhānas, emancipations, concentrations, and meditative attainments...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato anekavihitaṃ pubbenivāsaṃ anussarati...

Again, the Tathāgata recollects his manifold past abodes...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato dibbena cakkhunā visuddhena atikkantamānusakena satte passati cavamāne upapajjamāne hīne paṇīte suvaṇṇe dubbaṇṇe, sugate duggate yathākammūpage satte pajānāti...

Again, with the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, the Tathāgata sees beings passing away and being reborn, inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate, and he understands how beings fare in accordance with their kamma...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato āsavānaṃ khayā anāsavaṃ cetovimuttiṃ paññāvimuttiṃ diṭṭheva dhamme sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā upasampajja viharati.

Again, with the destruction of the taints, the Tathāgata has realized for himself with direct knowledge, in this very life, the taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, and having entered upon it, he dwells in it.


♦ Several discourses list five powers of a woman (mātugāmassa bala):


SN 37.25

“pañcimāni, bhikkhave, mātugāmassa balāni. katamāni pañca? rūpabalaṃ, bhogabalaṃ, ñātibalaṃ, puttabalaṃ, sīlabalaṃ.

There are, bhikkhus, these five powers of a woman. Which five? The power of attractiveness, the power of wealth, the power of relatives, the power of children, and the power of virtue.


♦ The Bala Sutta proposes a list of eight miscellaneous powers:


AN 8.27

“aṭṭhimāni, bhikkhave, balāni. katamāni aṭṭha? ruṇṇabalā, bhikkhave, dārakā, kodhabalā mātugāmā, āvudhabalā corā, issariyabalā rājāno, ujjhattibalā bālā, nijjhattibalā paṇḍitā, paṭisaṅkhānabalā bahussutā, khantibalā samaṇabrāhmaṇā. imāni kho, bhikkhave, aṭṭha balānī”ti.

Bhikkhus, there are these eight powers. What eight? The power of children is weeping; the power of women is anger; the power of thieves is a weapon; the power of kings is sovereignty; the power of fools is to complain; the power of the wise is to deliberate; the power of the learned is reflection; the power of ascetics and brahmins is patience. These are the eight powers.


These powers all have in common that they allow one who possesses them to solve their most recurrent problems, but their nature vary widely, from annoyance to threat, to inner good qualities.


Bodhi leaf





bāla:

fool (n.), foolish (adj.)


AN 3.2

“kammalakkhaṇo, bhikkhave, bālo... tīhi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bālo veditabbo. katamehi tīhi? kāyaduccaritena, vacīduccaritena, manoduccaritena.

Monks, a fool is characterized by his/her actions... A person endowed with three things is to be recognized as a fool. Which three? Bodily misconduct, verbal misconduct, mental misconduct.


AN 10.236

“cattārīsāya, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bālo veditabbo. katamehi cattārīsāya? attanā ca pāṇātipātī hoti, parañca pāṇātipāte samādapeti, pāṇātipāte ca samanuñño hoti, pāṇātipātassa ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

Monks, a person endowed with forty qualities is to be recognized as a fool. Which forty? He destroys life himself, he encourages others to destroy life, he approves of the destruction of life and he praises the destruction of life.

attanā ca adinnādāyī hoti, parañca adinnādāne samādapeti, adinnādāne ca samanuñño hoti, adinnādānassa ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He takes what is not given himself, he encourages others to take what is not given, he approves of taking what is not given and he praises taking what is not given.

attanā ca kāmesumicchācārī hoti, parañca kāmesumicchācāre samādapeti, kāmesumicchācāre ca samanuñño hoti, kāmesumicchācārassa ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He engages in sexual misconduct himself, he encourages others to engage in sexual misconduct, he approves of engaging in sexual misconduct and he praises engaging in sexual misconduct.

attanā ca musāvādī hoti, parañca musāvāde samādapeti, musāvāde ca samanuñño hoti, musāvādassa ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He speaks falsely himself, he encourages others to speak falsely, he approves of speaking falsely and he praises speaking falsely.

attanā ca pisuṇavāco hoti, parañca pisuṇāya vācāya samādapeti, pisuṇāya vācāya ca samanuñño hoti, pisuṇāya vācāya ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He engages in divisive speech himself, he encourages others to engage in divisive speech, he approves of engaging in divisive speech and he praises engaging in divisive speech.

attanā ca pharusavāco hoti, parañca pharusāya vācāya samādapeti, pharusāya vācāya ca samanuñño hoti, pharusāya vācāya ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He engages in harsh speech himself, he encourages others to engage in harsh speech, he approves of engaging in harsh speech and he praises engaging in harsh speech.

attanā ca samphappalāpī hoti, parañca samphappalāpe samādapeti, samphappalāpe ca samanuñño hoti, samphappalāpassa ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He engages in useless chatter himself, he encourages others to engage in useless chatter, he approves of engaging in useless chatter and he praises engaging in useless chatter.

attanā ca abhijjhālu hoti, parañca abhijjhāya samādapeti, abhijjhāya ca samanuñño hoti, abhijjhāya ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He is envious himself, he encourages others to be envious, he approves of being envious and he praises being envious.

attanā ca byāpannacitto hoti, parañca byāpāde samādapeti, byāpāde ca samanuñño hoti, byāpādassa ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He has a mind of ill-will himself, he encourages others to bear ill-will, he approves of ill-will and he praises ill-will.

attanā ca micchādiṭṭhiko hoti, parañca micchādiṭṭhiyā samādapeti, micchādiṭṭhiyā ca samanuñño hoti, micchādiṭṭhiyā ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati.

He has wrong view himself, he encourages others to have wrong view, he approves of having wrong view and he praises having wrong view.


AN 3.5

“tīhi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bālo veditabbo. katamehi tīhi? ayoniso pañhaṃ kattā hoti, ayoniso pañhaṃ vissajjetā hoti, parassa kho pana yoniso pañhaṃ vissajjitaṃ parimaṇḍalehi padabyañjanehi siliṭṭhehi upagatehi nābbhanumoditā hoti.

Bhikkhus, one who possesses three qualities should be known as a fool. What three? He formulates a question carelessly; he replies to a question carelessly; when another person replies to a question carefully, with well-rounded and coherent words and phrases, he does not approve of it.


Asappurisa is frequently juxtaposed with bāla:


MN 129

‘bālo ayaṃ bhavaṃ asappuriso’’ti.

‘This individual is a fool, a bad person’.


Other synonyms include akusala (unskillful, SN 1.35), mūḷha (stupid, SN 1.35), abyatta (incompetent, AN 9.35), akhettaññū (inexperienced, literally 'not knowing the field', AN 9.35), dummedha (of poor discernment, AN 3.57). The antonym of bāla is paṇḍita. The longest description of what a bāla is, in contrast with a paṇḍita, who has the opposite qualities, appears in the Bālapaṇḍita Sutta:


MN 129

“tīṇimāni, bhikkhave, bālassa bālalakkhaṇāni bālanimittāni bālāpadānāni. katamāni tīṇi? idha, bhikkhave, bālo duccintitacintī ca hoti dubbhāsitabhāsī ca dukkaṭakammakārī ca. no cetaṃ, bhikkhave, bālo duccintitacintī ca abhavissa dubbhāsitabhāsī ca dukkaṭakammakārī ca kena naṃ paṇḍitā jāneyyuṃ: ‘bālo ayaṃ bhavaṃ asappuriso’’ti? yasmā ca kho, bhikkhave, bālo duccintitacintī ca hoti dubbhāsitabhāsī ca dukkaṭakammakārī ca tasmā naṃ paṇḍitā jānanti: ‘bālo ayaṃ bhavaṃ asappuriso’’ti.

There are, bhikkhus, these three characteristics of a fool, signs of a fool, features of a fool. What three? Here, bhikkhus, a fool thinks bad thoughts, speaks bad words and performs bad deeds. If a fool didn't think bad thoughts, speak bad words, and perform bad deeds, how would a wise one know him: 'This individual is a fool, a bad person?' But because a fool thinks bad thoughts, speaks bad words and performs bad deeds, a wise one knows him: 'This individual is a fool, a bad person.'

sa kho so, bhikkhave, bālo tividhaṃ diṭṭheva dhamme dukkhaṃ domanassaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti. sace, bhikkhave, bālo sabhāyaṃ vā nisinno hoti, rathikāya vā nisinno hoti, siṅghāṭake vā nisinno hoti, tatra ce jano tajjaṃ tassāruppaṃ kathaṃ manteti. sace, bhikkhave, bālo pāṇātipātī hoti, adinnādāyī hoti, kāmesumicchācārī hoti, musāvādī hoti, surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhāyī hoti, tatra, bhikkhave, bālassa evaṃ hoti: ‘yaṃ kho jano tajjaṃ tassāruppaṃ kathaṃ manteti, saṃvijjanteva te dhammā mayi, ahañca tesu dhammesu sandissāmī’ti. idaṃ, bhikkhave, bālo paṭhamaṃ diṭṭheva dhamme dukkhaṃ domanassaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti.

A fool feels pain and grief in this visible world in three ways. If a fool is seated in an assembly hall, in a street or in a square and there the people are discussing some pertinent and relevant matters, then, and if the fool destroys life, takes what is not given, engages in misconduct regarding sensual pleasures, speaks falsely, and drinks liquors, spirits and intoxicants that cause carelessness, he thinks: 'These people are discussing some pertinent and relevant matters. These things are present in me, and I am seen having them.' This, bhikkhus, is the first kind of pain and grief that a fool feels in this visible world.

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bālo passati rājāno coraṃ āgucāriṃ gahetvā vividhā kammakāraṇā kārente: kasāhipi tāḷente vettehipi tāḷente... asināpi sīsaṃ chindante. tatra, bhikkhave, bālassa evaṃ hoti: ‘yathārūpānaṃ kho pāpakānaṃ kammānaṃ hetu rājāno coraṃ āgucāriṃ gahetvā vividhā kammakāraṇā kārenti: kasāhipi tāḷenti ... asināpi sīsaṃ chindanti; saṃvijjanteva te dhammā mayi, ahañca tesu dhammesu sandissāmi. maṃ cepi rājāno jāneyyuṃ, mampi rājāno gahetvā vividhā kammakāraṇā kāreyyuṃ kasāhipi tāḷeyyuṃ ... jīvantampi sūle uttāseyyuṃ, asināpi sīsaṃ chindeyyun’ti. idampi, bhikkhave, bālo dutiyaṃ diṭṭheva dhamme dukkhaṃ domanassaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti.

Moreover, when a robber culprit has been caught, a fool sees him subjected to various types of torture by kings: getting flogged with whips, flogged with rods... beheaded with a sword. There the fool thinks: 'When a robber culprit has been caught, because of such bad deeds, he is subjected to various types of torture by kings: getting flogged with whips, flogged with rods... beheaded with a sword. These things are present in me, and I am seen having them. If kings knew me, I would also be subjected to various types of torture by kings: getting flogged with whips, flogged with rods... beheaded with a sword.' This, bhikkhus, is the second kind of pain and grief that a fool feels in this visible world.

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bālaṃ pīṭhasamārūḷhaṃ vā mañcasamārūḷhaṃ vā chamāyaṃ vā semānaṃ, yānissa pubbe pāpakāni kammāni katāni kāyena duccaritāni vācāya duccaritāni manasā duccaritāni tānissa tamhi samaye olambanti ajjholambanti abhippalambanti. seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, mahataṃ pabbatakūṭānaṃ chāyā sāyanhasamayaṃ pathaviyā olambanti ajjholambanti abhippalambanti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bālaṃ pīṭhasamārūḷhaṃ vā mañcasamārūḷhaṃ vā chamāyaṃ vā semānaṃ, yānissa pubbe pāpakāni kammāni katāni kāyena duccaritāni vācāya duccaritāni manasā duccaritāni tānissa tamhi samaye olambanti ajjholambanti abhippalambanti.

Moreover, bhikkhus, when a fool is on a chair, on a bed, or lying down on the floor, in such a moment, the bad actions he performed earlier by bodily misconduct, verbal misconduct, or mental misconduct fall on him, cover him, and envelop him. Just as, bhikkhus, in the evening, a great mountain peak's shadow falls on the earth, covers, and envelops it, in the same way, when a fool is on a chair, on a bed, or lying down on the floor, in such a moment, the bad actions he performed earlier by bodily misconduct, verbal misconduct, or mental misconduct fall on him, cover him, and envelop him.

tatra, bhikkhave, bālassa evaṃ hoti: ‘akataṃ vata me kalyāṇaṃ, akataṃ kusalaṃ, akataṃ bhīruttāṇaṃ; kataṃ pāpaṃ, kataṃ luddaṃ, kataṃ kibbisaṃ. yāvatā, bho, akatakalyāṇānaṃ akatakusalānaṃ akatabhīruttāṇānaṃ katapāpānaṃ kataluddānaṃ katakibbisānaṃ gati taṃ gatiṃ pecca gacchāmī’ti. so socati kilamati paridevati urattāḷiṃ kandati sammohaṃ āpajjati. idampi, bhikkhave, bālo tatiyaṃ diṭṭheva dhamme dukkhaṃ domanassaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti.

Then, bhikkhus, a fool thinks: 'Truly, I have not done what is beneficial, I have not done what is skillful, I have not made a protection from fear, I have done what is bad, I have done what is cruel, I have done wrong. The destination of those who have not done what is beneficial, who have not done what is skillful, who have not made a protection from fear, who have done what is bad, who have done what is cruel, who have done wrong is the destination where I will go after death. He sorrows, grieves, laments, beats his breast and becomes distraught. This, bhikkhus, is the third kind of pain and grief that a fool feels in this visible world.

“sa kho so, bhikkhave, bālo kāyena duccaritaṃ caritvā vācāya duccaritaṃ caritvā manasā duccaritaṃ caritvā kāyassa bhedā paraṃ maraṇā apāyaṃ duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati.

Bhikkhus, a fool who has engaged in bodily misconduct, verbal misconduct and mental misconduct, on the break-up of the body, after death, re-appears in a plane of deprivation, a bad destination, the lower realms, or in hell.


As we have seen above, a bāla is characterized by his wrong behavior. At AN 2.136, a bāla misbehaves towards mother and/or father. At the end of DN 2, King Ajatasattu calls himself a bāla because he killed his own father. At AN 2.137, a bāla misbehaves towards the Buddha or one of his disciples. At SN 1.35, some devas call themselves bālas because they were trying to find fault with the Buddha.

Often, the wrong behavior of a bāla is explained by the fact that he fails to take the results of his actions into consideration. At SN 2.22, a bāla thinks fortune is on his side as long as his wrong behavior does not yield its fruits. At SN 3.15, a bāla who acts wrongly behaves like an enemy to himself, because he will experience the bitter results of his actions. At SN 7.4, if a bāla wrongs an innocent man, a pure person, then bad things come back to him like dust thrown against the wind.

The wrong behavior of a bāla is often a verbal one. At SN 6.9, a bāla who utters defamatory speech cuts himself with an axe that is in his mouth. At SN 7.3, a bāla thinks he is victorious in a verbal quarrel when he shouts harshly. At MN 65, a bhikkhu calls himself a bāla because he declared he refused to abide by a new rule laid down by the Buddha (not eating after noon). At SN 16.6, a group of bhikkhus call themselves bālas after having been rebuked by the Buddha for competing with each other in regard to their learning, as to who could speak more, better, or longer. At MN 140, a bhikkhu calls himself a bāla because, not having recognized the Buddha, he addressed him as āvuso.

A bāla is also recognized by his appetite for kāmā. At MN 106, kāmā are said to be inconstant, hollow, vain, deceptive, illusory, and to be the babble (or subject of conversation?) of bālas (bāla·lāpana). At AN 2.38, however old may be an elder, if he enjoys kāmā, if he burns with fever for them, if he is consumed by thoughts about them and is eager to get them, then he is recognized as a bāla.

One who lacks generosity is a bāla, as stated at SN 1.32: 'What fears a miser who does not give is the danger that befalls the one who does not give. The hunger and thirst that a miser fears touches that same fool in this world and the other one.' At AN 3.57, a bāla does not attend on the 'holy ones' (sante, meaning arahants according to the commentary).

One who lacks wisdom and discernment and therefore may engage in foolish action is a bāla. At MN 34, a cowherd is called a bāla because in the last month of mansoon, he made his cattle cross the Ganges in a place that had no ford, without examining the shores of the river. At SN 2.22, a bāla who leaves the Dhamma to follow a way that is opposed to it is like a carter having left the even surface offered by the highway to enter a rugged bypath, who mourns because of his broken axle. At AN 4.115, a bāla does not reckon that some deeds are disagreeable to do and yet would be beneficial on the long run, and that some deeds, although they are agreeable to do, turn out to be unbeneficial on the long run, so he does not act in his own interest. At SN 9.3, a bāla looks but does not see, he listens to the Dhamma but does not understand and grasp the meaning. At SN 1.10, 'From longing for the future, from sorrowing over the past, bālas wither away like a green reed cut down'.

In a monastic context, one may also be called a bāla. At AN 2.98, there is a bāla who takes in charge what does not befall him (responsibilities) and another one who does not take in charge what befalls him. Similarly, at AN 2.104 and 106, there is a bāla who perceives what is not in accordance with the Dhamma (resp. the Discipline) as what is in accordance with the Dhamma (resp. the Discipline) and vice versa. Also, at SN 47.3, a bhikkhu asks the Buddha for a teaching in brief before dwelling in seclusion, diligent, ardent and resolute, but he responds that some bālas make such a request and then fail to live in seclusion, following the Buddha around instead.

AN 3.1 declares that whatever perils, calamities or misfortunes there are in the world always arise because of bālas. At SN 1.36, it is said that bālas devote themselves to pamāda (pamādam·anuyuñjanti). At AN 2.134, a bāla, without investigating the case, praises one who deserves criticism or criticizes one who deserves praise. At AN 2.135, without investigating the case, he believes a matter that should draw suspicion and is suspicious about a matter that should draw confidence.

At AN 8.27, the power (bala) of a fool (bāla) is to complain (ujjhatti·balā bālā).


Bodhi leaf





bhad(d)ante: vocative form of bhadanta, a respectful form of address for people of esteem meaning something akin to 'reverend sir' or 'venerable'.

This expression is generally used in the suttas by the bhikkhus towards the Buddha. In the modern day Theravada world, it may also be used to greet a senior monk or in traditional chantings to call the attention of devas.

The word derives from bhadda (explained as synonymous with kalyāṇa), which means good (as for example an elephant good to be trained, MN 129) or excellent (as for example someone with very good qualities, SN 16.8). Bhante is likely a contracted form.


Bodhi leaf





Bhagavā: Fortunate One, Lord, Venerable, Sublime One, generally translated as Blessed One or Exalted One. The term is derived from the word bhaga (luck, good fortune) and is systematically used in the suttas when his disciples speak of the Buddha at the third person. Those who are not his disciples generally call him 'bho Gotama' or 'samaṇa Gotama'.


Bodhi leaf





bhante: a respectful form of address for people of esteem meaning something akin to 'reverend sir' or 'venerable'. Generally considered to be a contracted form of bhadante.


Bodhi leaf





bhava:

(state of) existence, life, becoming, process of existence.

Bhava is not 'existence' in the ontological sense, like the existence of a building in a particular place or of an hypothetical number with strange properties, which would correspond to the noun 'atthitā', derived from the verb atthi and found for example at SN 12.15. The meaning of the word bhava is described by Ven. Bodhi as 'concrete sentient existence in one of the three realms of existence posited by Buddhist cosmology', while Ven. Thanissaro suggests it means 'a sense of identity in a particular world of experience: your sense of what you are, focused on a particular desire, in your personal sense of the world as related to that desire', and insists the word has both psychological and cosmological connotations. He also adds: '[The term 'becoming'] follows on doing, rather than existing as a prior metaphysical absolute or ground. In other words, it’s not the source from which we come; it’s something produced by the activity of our minds.' He has written a long essay on the subject, The Paradox of Becoming. However, Ven. Bodhi explains that he reverted to using the rendering 'existence', after the shortcomings of 'becoming' were pointed out to him.

The explicit definition given in the suttas mentions three types of bhava:

1. kāma·bhava
2. rūpa·bhava
3. arūpa·bhava


This definition is found for example in the Bhavapañhā Sutta:


SN 38.13

— “‘bhavo, bhavo’ti, āvuso sāriputta, vuccati. katamo nu kho, āvuso, bhavo”ti?

'Existence, existence', is it said, friend Sariputta. But what, friend, is existence?

— “tayo me, āvuso, bhavā: kāmabhavo, rūpabhavo, arūpabhavo. ime kho, āvuso, tayo bhavā”ti.

— Friend, there are these three types of existence: existence in the sense field, existence as form and formless existence. These, friend, are the three types of existence.

— “atthi panāvuso, maggo atthi paṭipadā, etesaṃ bhavānaṃ pariññāyā”ti?

— But friend, is there a path, is there a way for the full understanding of this existence?

—“atthi kho, āvuso, maggo atthi paṭipadā, etesaṃ bhavānaṃ pariññāyā”ti.

— There is, friend, a path, there is a way for the full understanding of this existence.

— “katamo, panāvuso, maggo katamā paṭipadā, etesaṃ bhavānaṃ pariññāyā”ti?

— And what, friend, is the path, what is the way for the full understanding of this existence?

“ayameva kho, āvuso, ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo, etesaṃ bhavānaṃ pariññāya...

This noble eightfold path, friend, is for the full understanding of this existence...


SN 45.164 repeats essentially the same thing, and adds that the ariya aṭṭh·aṅgika magga is also for their direct knowledge (abhiññā), for their complete destruction (parikkhaya), and for their abandoning (pahāna).

We find the same threefold characterization in the Vibhaṅga Sutta, which defines the term in the context of paṭicca·samuppāda, where bhava is conditioned by upādāna and in turn conditions the arising of jāti:


SN 12.2

upādāna·paccayā bhavo;

conditioned by attachment, [there is] existence

bhava·paccayā jāti;

conditioned by existence, [there is] birth

...

...

Katamo ca, bhikkhave, bhavo? Tayo·me, bhikkhave, bhavā: kāma·bhavo, rūpa·bhavo, arūpa·bhavo. Ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhavo.

And what, bhikkhus, is existence? There are, bhikkhus, these three types of existence: sensual existence, Form-existence, formless existence. This is called, bhikkhus, existence.


As every other phenomenon, bhava has the characteristic of anicca:


SN 22.96

atha kho bhagavā parittaṃ gomayapiṇḍaṃ pāṇinā gahetvā taṃ bhikkhuṃ etadavoca: “ettakopi kho, bhikkhu, attabhāvapaṭilābho natthi nicco dhuvo sassato avipariṇāmadhammo sassatisamaṃ tatheva ṭhassati. ettako cepi, bhikkhu, attabhāvapaṭilābho abhavissa nicco dhuvo sassato avipariṇāmadhammo, nayidaṃ brahmacariyavāso paññāyetha sammā dukkhakkhayāya. yasmā ca kho, bhikkhu, ettakopi attabhāvapaṭilābho natthi nicco dhuvo sassato avipariṇāmadhammo, tasmā brahmacariyavāso paññāyati sammā dukkhakkhayāya.

Then the Blessed One took up a little lump of cowdung in his hand and said to that bhikkhu: “Bhikkhu, there is not even this much individual existence that is permanent, stable, eternal, not subject to change, and that will remain the same just like eternity itself. If there was this much individual existence that was permanent, stable, eternal, not subject to change, this living of the holy life for the complete destruction of suffering could not be discerned. But because there is not even this much individual existence that is permanent, stable, eternal, not subject to change, this living of the holy life for the complete destruction of suffering is discerned.


A few suttas mention kamma, viññāṇa and taṇhā as playing a role in the 'production of future renewed existence' (āyatiṃ puna·bbhav·ābhinibbatti), such as the Bhava Sutta:


AN 3.76

— “bhavo, bhavoti, bhante, vuccati. kittāvatā nu kho, bhante, bhavo hotī”ti?

— "Lord, this word, 'becoming, becoming' — to what extent is there becoming?"

— “kāmadhātuvepakkañca, ānanda, kammaṃ nābhavissa, api nu kho kāmabhavo paññāyethā”ti?

— "Ananda, if there were no kamma ripening in the sensuality-property, would sensuality-becoming be discerned?"

— “no hetaṃ, bhante”.

— "No, lord."

— “iti kho, ānanda, kammaṃ khettaṃ, viññāṇaṃ bījaṃ, taṇhā sneho. avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ hīnāya dhātuyā viññāṇaṃ patiṭṭhitaṃ evaṃ āyatiṃ punabbhavābhinibbatti hoti.

— "Thus kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the moisture. The consciousness of living beings hindered by ignorance & fettered by craving is established in/tuned to a lower property. Thus there is the production of renewed becoming in the future.

— rūpadhātuvepakkañca, ānanda, kammaṃ nābhavissa, api nu kho rūpabhavo paññāyethā”ti?

— "If there were no kamma ripening in the form-property, would form-becoming be discerned?"

— “no hetaṃ, bhante”.

— "No, lord."

— “iti kho ānanda, kammaṃ khettaṃ, viññāṇaṃ bījaṃ, taṇhā sneho. avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ majjhimāya dhātuyā viññāṇaṃ patiṭṭhitaṃ evaṃ āyatiṃ punabbhavābhinibbatti hoti.

— "Thus kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the moisture. The consciousness of living beings hindered by ignorance & fettered by craving is established in/tuned to a middling property. Thus there is the production of renewed becoming in the future.

— “arūpadhātuvepakkañca, ānanda, kammaṃ nābhavissa, api nu kho arūpabhavo paññāyethā”ti?

— "If there were no kamma ripening in the formless-property, would formless-becoming be discerned?"

— “no hetaṃ, bhante”.

— "No, lord."

— “iti kho, ānanda, kammaṃ khettaṃ, viññāṇaṃ bījaṃ, taṇhā sneho. avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ paṇītāya dhātuyā viññāṇaṃ patiṭṭhitaṃ evaṃ āyatiṃ punabbhavābhinibbatti hoti. evaṃ kho, ānanda, bhavo hotī”ti.

— "Thus kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the moisture. The consciousness of living beings hindered by ignorance & fettered by craving is established in/tuned to a refined property. Thus there is the production of renewed becoming in the future. This is how there is becoming."


The next sutta repeats the exact same thing, except that it is no longer viññāṇa that is established in/tuned to the various levels, but cetanā and patthanā (aspiration):


AN 3.77

“iti kho, ānanda, kammaṃ khettaṃ, viññāṇaṃ bījaṃ, taṇhā sneho. avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ hīnāya dhātuyā cetanā patiṭṭhitā patthanā patiṭṭhitā evaṃ āyatiṃ punabbhavābhinibbatti hoti”.

"Thus kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the moisture. The intention & aspiration of living beings hindered by ignorance & fettered by craving is established in/tuned to a lower property. Thus there is the production of renewed becoming in the future.



SN 23.3 explains that bhava arises because of chanda, rāga, delight (nandi), taṇhā, upādāna, mental standpoints (cetaso adhiṭṭhānā), adherences (abhinivesa), and anusayas regarding the five khandhas:


SN 23.3

— “‘bhavanetti, bhavanettī’ti, bhante, vuccati. katamā nu kho, bhante, bhavanetti, katamo bhavanettinirodho”ti?

— Bhante, it is said: 'The conduit to existence, the conduit to existence.' Bhante, what is the conduit to existence, and what is the cessation of the conduit to existence?

“rūpe kho, rādha, yo chando yo rāgo yā nandī yā taṇhā ye upayupādānā cetaso adhiṭṭhānābhinivesānusayā: ayaṃ vuccati bhavanetti. tesaṃ nirodho bhavanettinirodho.

Radha, the desire, avidity, delight, craving, clinging & attachment, mental determinations, inclinations, and latent tendencies towards Form: this is called the conduit to existence. Their cessation is the cessation of the conduit to existence.

vedanāya... saññāya... saṅkhāresu ... viññāṇe yo chando ... pe ... adhiṭṭhānābhinivesānusayā — ayaṃ vuccati bhavanetti. tesaṃ nirodho bhavanettinirodho”ti.

The desire, avidity, delight, craving, clinging & attachment, mental determinations, inclinations, and latent tendencies towards Feeling... Perception... Constructions... Consciousness: this is called the conduit to existence. Their cessation is the cessation of the conduit to existence.


The Majjhe Sutta singles out taṇhā as a prominent cause for the production of bhava (bhavassa abhinibbattiyā):


AN 6.61

taṇhā sibbinī: taṇhā hi naṃ sibbati tassa tasseva bhavassa abhinibbattiyā

craving is the seamstress: craving sews one to the production of this or that existence.


In turn, craving for existence (bhava·taṇhā) has no beginning and is rooted in avijjā:


AN 10.62

“purimā, bhikkhave, koṭi na paññāyati bhavataṇhāya: ‘ito pubbe bhavataṇhā nāhosi, atha pacchā samabhavī’ti. evañcetaṃ, bhikkhave, vuccati, atha ca pana paññāyati: ‘idappaccayā bhavataṇhā’ti.

“Bhikkhus, it is said: ‘A first point of craving for existence, bhikkhus, is not seen such that before this there was no craving for existence and afterward it came into being.’ Still, craving for existence is seen to have a specific condition.

“bhavataṇhāmpāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sāhāraṃ vadāmi, no anāhāraṃ. ko cāhāro bhavataṇhāya? ‘avijjā’tissa vacanīyaṃ.

“I say, bhikkhus, that craving for existence has a nutriment; it is not without nutriment. And what is the nutriment for craving for existence? It should be said: ignorance.


In the Bhāra Sutta, the taṇhā leading to renewed existence (pono·bhavikā), which includes bhava·taṇhā and vibhava·taṇhā, is called 'the taking up of the burden' (bhār·ādāna). In the Ejā Sutta, the entire world seeks delight in bhava:


SN 35.91

aññathābhāvī bhavasatto loko bhavameva abhinandati.

The world, becoming otherwise, attached to existence, seeks delight only in existence.


The usual set of questions characterized at SN 56.8 as bad, unskillful is said in the Sāriputtakoṭṭhika Sutta to be important only to one who delights in existence:


SN 44.6

bhavārāmassa kho, āvuso, bhavaratassa bhavasammuditassa, bhavanirodhaṃ ajānato apassato yathābhūtaṃ, ‘hoti tathāgato paraṃ maraṇā’tipissa hoti ... pe ... ‘neva hoti na na hoti tathāgato paraṃ maraṇā’tipissa hoti.

It is one who delights in existence, who takes delight in existence, who rejoices in existence, and who does not know and see the cessation of existence as it really is, that thinks: ‘The Tathagata exists after death’ … or ‘The Tathagata neither exists nor does not exist after death.’

na bhavārāmassa kho, āvuso, na bhavaratassa na bhavasammuditassa, bhavanirodhaṃ jānato passato yathābhūtaṃ, ‘hoti tathāgato paraṃ maraṇā’tipissa na hoti ... pe ... ‘neva hoti na na hoti tathāgato paraṃ maraṇā’tipissa na hoti. ayampi kho, āvuso, pariyāyo, yenetaṃ abyākataṃ bhagavatā”ti.

“But, friend, one who does not delight in existence, who does not take delight in existence, who does not rejoice in existence, and who knows and sees the cessation of existence as it really is, does not think: ‘The Tathagata exists after death’ … or ‘The Tathagata neither exists nor does not exist after death.’


In the Nibbedhika Sutta, a particular existence is determined by the vipāka of kāmā:


AN 6.63

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, kāmānaṃ vipāko? yaṃ kho, bhikkhave, kāmayamāno tajjaṃ tajjaṃ attabhāvaṃ abhinibbatteti puññabhāgiyaṃ vā apuññabhāgiyaṃ vā, ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, kāmānaṃ vipāko.

“And what is the result of sensuality? One who wants sensuality produces a corresponding state of existence, on the side of merit or demerit. This is called the result of sensuality.


In the Āgantuka Sutta, bhava·taṇhā is to be abandoned through abhiññā:


SN 45.159

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā? avijjā ca bhavataṇhā ca. ime, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā.

“And what, bhikkhus, are the things to be abandoned by direct knowledge? Ignorance and craving for existence. These are the things to be abandoned by direct knowledge.


In the Sāriputta Sutta, the cessation of bhava is explicitly mentioned as meaning Nibbāna:


AN 10.7

Seyyathāpi, āvuso, sakalikaggissa jhāyamānassa aññāva acci uppajjati aññāva acci nirujjhati; evamevaṃ kho, āvuso, ‘bhavanirodho nibbānaṃ bhavanirodho nibbānan’ti aññāva saññā uppajjati aññāva saññā nirujjhati. ‘Bhavanirodho nibbānan’ti saññī ca panāhaṃ, āvuso, tasmiṃ samaye ahosin”ti.

Just as, when a fire of twigs is burning, one flame arises and another flame ceases, so one perception arose and another perception ceased in me: ‘The cessation of existence is nibbāna; the cessation of existence is nibbāna.’ On that occasion, friend, I was percipient: ‘The cessation of existence is nibbāna.’”


In a recurrent expression, upon fulfilling the training in general or in a particular aspect, it is often said:


SN 22.26

Ñāṇañca pana me dassanaṃ udapādi: ‘akuppā me vimutti; ayamantimā jāti; natthi dāni punabbhavo’”ti.

“The knowledge and vision arose in me: ‘Unshakable is my liberation of mind; this is my last birth; now there is no more renewed existence.’”


The Aniccasaññā Sutta explains how the perception of impermanence eliminates bhava·rāga:


SN 22.102

“aniccasaññā, bhikkhave, bhāvitā bahulīkatā sabbaṃ kāmarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanati”.

“Bhikkhus, when the perception of impermanence is developed and cultivated, it eliminates all sensual lust, it eliminates all lust for existence, it eliminates all ignorance, it uproots all conceit ‘I am.’

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“kathaṃ bhāvitā ca, bhikkhave, aniccasaññā kathaṃ bahulīkatā sabbaṃ kāmarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanati? ‘iti rūpaṃ, iti rūpassa samudayo, iti rūpassa atthaṅgamo; iti vedanā, iti vedanāya samudayo, iti vedanāya atthaṅgamo; iti saññā, iti saññāya samudayo, iti saññāya atthaṅgamo; iti saṅkhārā, iti saṅkhārānaṃ samudayo, iti saṅkhārānaṃ atthaṅgamo; iti viññāṇaṃ, iti viññāṇassa samudayo, iti viññāṇassa atthaṅgamo’ti: evaṃ bhāvitā kho, bhikkhave, aniccasaññā evaṃ bahulīkatā sabbaṃ kāmarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanatī”ti.

“And how, bhikkhus, is the perception of impermanence developed and cultivated so that it eliminates all sensual lust, eliminates all lust for existence, eliminates all ignorance, and uproots all conceit ‘I am’? ‘Such is form, such its origin, such its passing away; such is feeling, such its origin, such its passing away; such is perception, such its origin, such its passing away; such are volitional formations, such their origin, such their passing away; such is consciousness, such its origin, such its passing away’: that is how the perception of impermanence is developed and cultivated so that it eliminates all sensual lust, eliminates all lust for existence, eliminates all ignorance, and uproots all conceit ‘I am.’”


Bhava also appears prominently as one of the three āsavas (SN 45.163), one of the three taṇhā (SN 45.170), one of the three searches (esana, SN 45.161), one of the four yogas (AN 4.10, SN 45.172), one of the four floods (ogha, SN 45.171), one of the seven saṃyojanas as per the list given at AN 7.8, one of the seven anusayas (SN 45.175). Regarding all the above sets of phenomena, the ariya aṭṭhaṅgika magga is recommended in SN 45 for some or all of the following actions: abhiññā, full understanding (pariññā), complete destruction (parikkhaya), and pahāna.

In the case of the four yogas, the Yoga Sutta provides a little more detail:


AN 4.10

“Cattārome, bhikkhave, yogā. Katame cattāro? Kāmayogo, bhavayogo, diṭṭhiyogo, avijjāyogo...

“Bhikkhus, there are these four bonds. What four? The bond of sensuality, the bond of existence, the bond of views, and the bond of ignorance...

Bhavayogo ca kathaṃ hoti? Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti. Tassa bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ appajānato yo bhavesu bhavarāgo bhavanandī bhavasneho bhavamucchā bhavapipāsā bhavapariḷāho bhavajjhosānaṃ bhavataṇhā sānuseti. Ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhavayogo...

And how is there the bond of existence? Here, someone does not understand as they really are the origin and the passing away, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to states of existence. When one does not understand these things as they really are, then lust for existence, delight in existence, affection for existence, infatuation with existence, thirst for existence, passion for existence, attachment to existence, and craving for existence lie deep within one in regard to states of existence. This is called the bond of existence...

Bhava­yoga­visaṃ­yogo ca kathaṃ hoti? Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti. Tassa bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ pajānato yo bhavesu bhavarāgo bhavanandī bhavasneho bhavamucchā bhavapipāsā bhavapariḷāho bhavajjhosānaṃ bhavataṇhā sā nānuseti. Ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhava­yoga­visaṃyogo.

And how is there the severance of the bond of existence? Here, someone understands as they really are the origin and the passing away, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to states of existence. When one understands these things as they really are, then lust for existence, delight in existence, affection for existence, infatuation with existence, thirst for existence, passion for existence, attachment to existence, and craving for existence do not lie within one in regard to states of existence. This is called the severance of the bond of existence.


AN 5.170

atthāvuso, nevasaññānāsaññāyatanūpagā devā, idaṃ bhavānaṃ aggan”ti.

Friend, there are devas of the plane of neither-perception-nor-non-perception: this is the highest state of existence.


AN 1.328

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, appamattakopi gūtho duggandho hoti; evamevaṃ kho ahaṃ, bhikkhave, appamattakampi bhavaṃ na vaṇṇemi, antamaso accharāsaṅghātamattampi”.

Bhikkhus, just as even a small amount of excrement smells bad, in the same way I do not recommend even a small amount of existence, even for the time of s finger snap.



Bodhi leaf





bhāvanā: cultivation by the mind, mental development, meditation - lit: calling into existence, producing.

Perhaps the closest we can get to a definition of the word, or at least what the concept entails, is a depiction of what the expression 'the effort of/for development' (bhāvanā·ppadhāna) practically means, as given in the Padhāna Sutta:


AN 4.69

“katamañca, bhikkhave, bhāvanāppadhānaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu anuppannānaṃ kusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ uppādāya chandaṃ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṃ ārabhati cittaṃ paggaṇhāti padahati. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhāvanāppadhānaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the effort for development? Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu generates desire, exerts himself, arouses energy, exerts his mind and strives for the arising of unarisen skillful mental states. This is called, bhikkhus, the effort for development.


Other suttas also provide definitions of bhāvanā·bala (the power of development). One of those refers to a set of qualities that are often cited alongside bhāvanā, the seven bojjhaṅgas:


AN 2.12

“katamañca, bhikkhave, bhāvanābalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu satisambojjhaṅgaṃ bhāveti vivekanissitaṃ virāganissitaṃ nirodhanissitaṃ vosaggapariṇāmiṃ, dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgaṃ bhāveti... vīriyasambojjhaṅgaṃ... pītisambojjhaṅgaṃ... passaddhisambojjhaṅgaṃ... samādhisambojjhaṅgaṃ... upekkhāsambojjhaṅgaṃ bhāveti vivekanissitaṃ virāganissitaṃ nirodhanissitaṃ vosaggapariṇāmiṃ. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhāvanābalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of development? Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu cultivates the enlightenment factor of mindfulness, that is based on seclusion, dispassion, cessation, maturing in release, he cultivates the enlightenment factor of discrimination of phenomena... energy... exaltation... tranquility... concentration... equanimity, that is based on seclusion, dispassion, cessation, maturing in release. This, bhikkhus, is called the power of development.


The development of bojjhaṅgas is also cited in a description of how āsavas are abandoned by developing (āsavā bhāvanā pahātabbā), at MN 2. Another definition of bhāvanā·bala (the power of development) is given in the following sutta:


AN 2.13

“katamañca, bhikkhave, bhāvanābalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu... paṭhamaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati... dutiyaṃ jhānaṃ... tatiyaṃ jhānaṃ... catutthaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhāvanābalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of development? Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu... enters and dwells in the first jhana... the second jhana... the third jhana... the fourth jhana. This, bhikkhus, is called the power of development.


We also find in the suttas lists of what appears to be synonyms for bhāvanā. The related verb bhāveti is very often juxtaposed with bahulī·karoti (lit: 'to make much of', i.e. to practice frequently, repeatedly, seriously). AN 5.57 and MN 95 also juxtapose respectively āsevati (to frequent, visit; to practise, pursue, indulge, enjoy) and the related substantive āsevanā. At AN 9.35, the verb svādhiṭṭhitaṃ adhiṭṭhāti (to undertake in a well undertaken way; ven. Thanissaro: 'establishes himself firmly in it'; ven. Bodhi: 'focuses on it well') is also juxtaposed to bhāveti and the above two verbs. Some suttas (e.g. AN 8.1) also sometimes juxtapose the past participles yānī·kata (lit: 'made a vehicle'), vatthu·kata (lit: 'made the ground/basis'), anuṭṭhita (lit: 'stood along', i.e. 'carried out'), paricita (gathered, accumulated, increased; or scrutinized, acquainted with, constantly practised; ven. Bodhi translates consolidated), su·samāraddha (well undertaken).

An apparent antonym to bhāvanā is pahāna (abandoning):


SN 46.6

kāyaduccaritaṃ pahāya kāyasucaritaṃ bhāveti, vacīduccaritaṃ pahāya vacīsucaritaṃ bhāveti, manoduccaritaṃ pahāya manosucaritaṃ bhāveti.

having abandoned bodily misconduct, a bhikkhu develops good bodily conduct; having abandoned verbal misconduct, he develops good verbal conduct; having abandoned mental misconduct, he develops good mental conduct.



The traditional treatment of the term sometimes consists in analyzing it in two categories: samatha·bhāvanā and vipassana·bhāvanā. Although these exact compound words never actually occur in the suttas, we do find the following statement in a number of them:


MN 149

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā? samatho ca vipassanā ca. ime, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā.

And what mental states are to be developed by direct knowledge? Tranquility and Insight. These, bhikkhus, are the mental states that are to be developed by direct knowledge.


The practice of samatha and vipassana also appears as a duty for a monk in the Piṇḍapātapārisuddhi Sutta:


MN 151

“puna caparaṃ, sāriputta, bhikkhunā iti paṭisañcikkhitabbaṃ: ‘bhāvitā nu kho me samatho ca vipassanā cā’ti? sace, sāriputta, bhikkhu paccavekkhamāno evaṃ jānāti: ‘abhāvitā kho me samatho ca vipassanā cā’ti, tena, sāriputta, bhikkhunā samathavipassanānaṃ bhāvanāya vāyamitabbaṃ.

Moreover, Sariputta, a bhikkhu should consider: 'Are Tranquility and Insight developed in me? If, Sariputta, a bhikkhu examining [himself] knows thus: 'Tranquility and Insight are not developed in me', then that bhikkhu should make an effort to develop Tranquility and Insight.

sace pana, sāriputta, bhikkhu paccavekkhamāno evaṃ jānāti: ‘bhāvitā kho me samatho ca vipassanā cā’ti, tena, sāriputta, bhikkhunā teneva pītipāmojjena vihātabbaṃ ahorattānusikkhinā kusalesu dhammesu.

But if, Sariputta, a bhikkhu examining [himself] knows thus: 'Tranquility and Insight are not developed in me', then that bhikkhu should remain with that serene joy & exaltation, training day & night in advantageous mental states.


It is also explained at AN 2.31 that samatha leads to the bhavana of citta, which in turns leads to abandoning rāga, while vipassana leads to the bhavana of paññā, which in turns leads to abandoning avijjā. SN 43.2 explains that they lead to the destruction of the three akusala·mūlas, and MN 73 shows in detail that they lead to the six abhiññā and arahatta. In AN 4.170, ven. Ananda explains that everyone who declares to him having become an arahant has achieved so by practicing both samatha and vipassana in one of four ways.

However, as the Upaka Sutta makes it clear, what is said 'to be developed' (bhāvetabba) is not at all restricted to samatha·bhāvanā and vipassana·bhāvanā, but includes at large whatever is kusala:


AN 4.188

itipidaṃ kusalaṃ bhāvetabba

That which is wholesome should be developed


That being said, when only one category of phenomena is mentioned as to be developed, it is often the 7 bojjhaṅgas, as we have seen above at AN 2.12 and MN 2, or sometimes kāyagatāsati:


AN 1.575

“Yassa kassaci, bhikkhave, mahāsamuddo cetasā phuṭo antogadhā tassa kunnadiyo yā kāci samuddaṅgamā; evamevaṃ, bhikkhave, yassa kassaci kāyagatā sati bhāvitā bahulīkatā antogadhā tassa kusalā dhammā ye keci vijjābhāgiyā”ti.

“Bhikkhus, anyone who brings into their mind the great ocean includes all of the streams that run into it. In the same way, anyone who has developed and cultivated mindfulness of the body includes all of the skillful qualities that play a part in realization.”


Some suttas mention development in body and in mind. Some suttas, such as the Loṇakapalla Sutta, even add development in virtue (sīla) and wisdom (paññā):


AN 3.100

Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo bhāvitakāyo hoti bhāvitasīlo bhāvitacitto bhāvitapañño aparitto mahatto appamāṇavihārī.

There is the case where a certain individual is developed in [contemplating] the body, developed in virtue, developed in mind, developed in discernment: unrestricted, large-hearted, dwelling with the immeasurable.


The Mahā Saccaka Sutta provides explanations as to what development in body and mind may mean:


MN 36

“kathañca, aggivessana, abhāvitakāyo ca hoti abhāvitacitto ca? idha, aggivessana, assutavato puthujjanassa uppajjati sukhā vedanā. so sukhāya vedanāya phuṭṭho samāno sukhasārāgī ca hoti sukhasārāgitañca āpajjati. tassa sā sukhā vedanā nirujjhati. sukhāya vedanāya nirodhā uppajjati dukkhā vedanā. so dukkhāya vedanāya phuṭṭho samāno socati kilamati paridevati urattāḷiṃ kandati sammohaṃ āpajjati. tassa kho esā, aggivessana, uppannāpi sukhā vedanā cittaṃ pariyādāya tiṭṭhati abhāvitattā kāyassa, uppannāpi dukkhā vedanā cittaṃ pariyādāya tiṭṭhati abhāvitattā cittassa. yassa kassaci, aggivessana, evaṃ ubhatopakkhaṃ uppannāpi sukhā vedanā cittaṃ pariyādāya tiṭṭhati abhāvitattā kāyassa, uppannāpi dukkhā vedanā cittaṃ pariyādāya tiṭṭhati abhāvitattā cittassa, evaṃ kho, aggivessana, abhāvitakāyo ca hoti abhāvitacitto ca.

“How, Aggivessana, is one undeveloped in body and undeveloped in mind? Here, Aggivessana, pleasant feeling arises in an untaught ordinary person. Touched by that pleasant feeling, he lusts after pleasure and continues to lust after pleasure. That pleasant feeling of his ceases. With the cessation of the pleasant feeling, painful feeling arises. Touched by that painful feeling, he sorrows, grieves, and laments, he weeps beating his breast and becomes distraught. When that pleasant feeling has arisen in him, it invades his mind and remains because body is not developed. And when that painful feeling has arisen in him, it invades his mind and remains because mind is not developed. Anyone in whom, in this double manner, arisen pleasant feeling invades his mind and remains because body is not developed, and arisen painful feeling invades his mind and remains because mind is not developed, is thus undeveloped in body because mind is not developed, is thus undeveloped in body and undeveloped in mind.

“kathañca, aggivessana, bhāvitakāyo ca hoti bhāvitacitto ca? idha, aggivessana, sutavato ariyasāvakassa uppajjati sukhā vedanā. so sukhāya vedanāya phuṭṭho samāno na sukhasārāgī ca hoti, na sukhasārāgitañca āpajjati. tassa sā sukhā vedanā nirujjhati. sukhāya vedanāya nirodhā uppajjati dukkhā vedanā. so dukkhāya vedanāya phuṭṭho samāno na socati na kilamati na paridevati na urattāḷiṃ kandati na sammohaṃ āpajjati. tassa kho esā, aggivessana, uppannāpi sukhā vedanā cittaṃ na pariyādāya tiṭṭhati bhāvitattā kāyassa, uppannāpi dukkhā vedanā cittaṃ na pariyādāya tiṭṭhati bhāvitattā cittassa. yassa kassaci, aggivessana, evaṃ ubhatopakkhaṃ uppannāpi sukhā vedanā cittaṃ na pariyādāya tiṭṭhati bhāvitattā kāyassa, uppannāpi dukkhā vedanā cittaṃ na pariyādāya tiṭṭhati bhāvitattā cittassa. evaṃ kho, aggivessana, bhāvitakāyo ca hoti bhāvitacitto cā”ti.

“And how, Aggivessana, is one developed in body and developed in mind? Here, Aggivessana, pleasant feeling arises in a well-taught noble disciple. Touched by that pleasant feeling, he does not lust after pleasure or continue to lust after pleasure. That pleasant feeling of his ceases. With the cessation of the pleasant feeling, painful feeling arises. Touched by that painful feeling, he does not sorrow, grieve, and lament, he does not weep beating his breast and become distraught. When that pleasant feeling has arisen in him, it does not invade his mind and remain because body is developed. And when that painful feeling has arisen in him, it does not invade his mind and remain because mind is developed. Anyone in whom, in this double manner, arisen pleasant feeling does not invade his mind and remain because body is developed, and arisen painful feeling does not invade his mind and remain because mind is developed, is thus developed in body and developed in mind.”


A number of suttas outline what are the consequences of the development of the mind or lack thereof. The Anāgatabhaya Sutta explains how lack of development brings about the corruption and disappearance of the Dhamma:


AN 5.79

bhavissanti, bhikkhave, bhikkhū anāgatamaddhānaṃ abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā aññe upasampādessanti. tepi na sakkhissanti vinetuṃ adhisīle adhicitte adhipaññāya. tepi bhavissanti abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā aññe upasampādessanti. tepi na sakkhissanti vinetuṃ adhisīle adhicitte adhipaññāya. tepi bhavissanti abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. iti kho, bhikkhave, dhammasandosā vinayasandoso; vinayasandosā dhammasandoso...

“There will be, in the course of the future, monks undeveloped in body, undeveloped in virtue, undeveloped in mind, undeveloped in discernment. They—being undeveloped in body, undeveloped in virtue, undeveloped in mind, undeveloped in discernment—will give full ordination to others and will not be able to discipline them in heightened virtue, heightened mind, heightened discernment. These too will then be undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment—will give full ordination to still others and will not be able to discipline them in heightened virtue, heightened mind, heightened discernment. These too will then be undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. Thus from corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt Dhamma...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bhavissanti bhikkhū anāgatamaddhānaṃ abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā aññesaṃ nissayaṃ dassanti. tepi na sakkhissanti vinetuṃ adhisīle adhicitte adhipaññāya. tepi bhavissanti abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā aññesaṃ nissayaṃ dassanti. tepi na sakkhissanti vinetuṃ adhisīle adhicitte adhipaññāya. tepi bhavissanti abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. iti kho, bhikkhave, dhammasandosā vinayasandoso; vinayasandosā dhammasandoso...

“And again, there will be in the course of the future monks undeveloped in body, undeveloped in virtue, undeveloped in mind, undeveloped in discernment. They—being undeveloped in body, undeveloped in virtue, undeveloped in mind, undeveloped in discernment—will take on others as students and will not be able to discipline them in heightened virtue, heightened mind, heightened discernment. These too will then be undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment—will take on still others as students and will not be able to discipline them in heightened virtue, heightened mind, heightened discernment. These too will then be undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. Thus from corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt Dhamma...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bhavissanti bhikkhū anāgatamaddhānaṃ abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā abhidhammakathaṃ vedallakathaṃ kathentā kaṇhadhammaṃ okkamamānā na bujjhissanti. iti kho, bhikkhave, dhammasandosā vinayasandoso; vinayasandosā dhammasandoso...

“And again, there will be in the course of the future monks undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment—when giving a talk on higher Dhamma or a talk composed of questions and answers, will fall into dark mental states without being aware of it. Thus from corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt Dhamma...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bhavissanti bhikkhū anāgatamaddhānaṃ abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā ye te suttantā tathāgatabhāsitā gambhīrā gambhīratthā lokuttarā suññatāppaṭisaṃyuttā, tesu bhaññamānesu na sussūsissanti, na sotaṃ odahissanti, na aññā cittaṃ upaṭṭhapessanti, na ca te dhamme uggahetabbaṃ pariyāpuṇitabbaṃ maññissanti. ye pana te suttantā kavitā kāveyyā cittakkharā cittabyañjanā bāhirakā sāvakabhāsitā, tesu bhaññamānesu sussūsissanti, sotaṃ odahissanti, aññā cittaṃ upaṭṭhapessanti, te ca dhamme uggahetabbaṃ pariyāpuṇitabbaṃ maññissanti. iti kho, bhikkhave, dhammasandosā vinayasandoso; vinayasandosā dhammasandoso...

“And again, there will be in the course of the future monks undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment—will not listen when discourses that are words of the Tathagata—deep, profound, transcendent, connected with the Void—are being recited. They will not lend ear, will not set their hearts on knowing them, will not regard these teachings as worth grasping or mastering. But they will listen when discourses that are literary works—the works of poets, elegant in sound, elegant in rhetoric, the work of outsiders, words of disciples—are recited. They will lend ear and set their hearts on knowing them. They will regard these teachings as worth grasping and mastering. Thus from corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt Dhamma...

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bhavissanti bhikkhū anāgatamaddhānaṃ abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā therā bhikkhū bāhulikā bhavissanti sāthalikā okkamane pubbaṅgamā paviveke nikkhittadhurā, na vīriyaṃ ārabhissanti appattassa pattiyā anadhigatassa adhigamāya asacchikatassa sacchikiriyāya. tesaṃ pacchimā janatā diṭṭhānugatiṃ āpajjissati. sāpi bhavissati bāhulikā sāthalikā okkamane pubbaṅgamā paviveke nikkhittadhurā, na vīriyaṃ ārabhissati appattassa pattiyā anadhigatassa adhigamāya asacchikatassa sacchikiriyāya. iti kho, bhikkhave, dhammasandosā vinayasandoso; vinayasandosā dhammasandoso.

“And again, there will be in the course of the future monks undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment—will become elders living in luxury, lethargic, foremost in falling back, shirking the duties of solitude. They will not make an effort for the attaining of the as-yet-unattained, the reaching of the as-yet-unreached, the realization of the as-yet-unrealized. They will become an example for later generations, who will become luxurious in their living, lethargic, foremost in falling back, shirking the duties of solitude, and who will not make an effort for the attaining of the as-yet-unattained, the reaching of the as-yet-unreached, the realization of the as-yet-unrealized. Thus from corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt Dhamma.


The Loṇakapalla Sutta explains what difference development makes for the future results of actions:


AN 3.100

“kathaṃrūpassa, bhikkhave, puggalassa appamattakampi pāpakammaṃ kataṃ tamenaṃ nirayaṃ upaneti? idha pana, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo abhāvitakāyo hoti abhāvitasīlo abhāvitacitto abhāvitapañño paritto appātumo appadukkhavihārī. evarūpassa, bhikkhave, puggalassa appamattakampi pāpakammaṃ kataṃ tamenaṃ nirayaṃ upaneti.

What kind of person does a trivial bad deed, but it lands them in hell? A person who hasn’t developed their physical endurance, ethics, mind, or wisdom. They’re small-minded and mean-spirited, living in suffering. That kind of person does a trivial bad deed, but it lands them in hell.

“kathaṃrūpassa, bhikkhave, puggalassa tādisaṃyeva appamattakaṃ pāpakammaṃ kataṃ diṭṭhadhammavedanīyaṃ hoti, nā’ṇupi khāyati, kiṃ bahudeva? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo bhāvitakāyo hoti bhāvitasīlo bhāvitacitto bhāvitapañño aparitto mahatto appamāṇavihārī. evarūpassa, bhikkhave, puggalassa tādisaṃyeva appamattakaṃ pāpakammaṃ kataṃ diṭṭhadhammavedanīyaṃ hoti, nāṇupi khāyati, kiṃ bahudeva.

What kind of person does the same trivial bad deed, but experiences it in the present life, without even a bit left over, not to speak of a lot? A person who has developed their physical endurance, ethics, mind, and wisdom. They’re not small-minded, but are big-hearted, living without limits. That kind of person does the same trivial bad deed, but experiences it in the present life, without even a bit left over, not to speak of a lot.


The Bhāvanā Sutta compares the results of lack of development to the case where a hen does not take care of her eggs, and development to the case where a hen does.


AN 7.71

bhāvanaṃ ananuyuttassa, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno viharato kiñcāpi evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimucceyyā’ti, atha khvassa neva anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimuccati. taṃ kissa hetu? ‘abhāvitattā’tissa vacanīyaṃ. kissa abhāvitattā? catunnaṃ satipaṭṭhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ sammappadhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ iddhipādānaṃ, pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ, pañcannaṃ balānaṃ, sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ, ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa.

“Bhikkhus, when a bhikkhu is not committed to development, they might wish: ‘If only my mind were freed from the defilements by not grasping!’ Even so, their mind is not freed from defilements by not grasping. Why is that? It’s because they’re undeveloped. Undeveloped in what? The four kinds of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, and the noble eightfold path.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, kukkuṭiyā aṇḍāni aṭṭha vā dasa vā dvādasa vā. tānassu kukkuṭiyā na sammā adhisayitāni, na sammā pariseditāni, na sammā paribhāvitāni. kiñcāpi tassā kukkuṭiyā evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me kukkuṭapotakā pādanakhasikhāya vā mukhatuṇḍakena vā aṇḍakosaṃ padāletvā sotthinā abhinibbhijjeyyun’ti, atha kho abhabbāva te kukkuṭapotakā pādanakhasikhāya vā mukhatuṇḍakena vā aṇḍakosaṃ padāletvā sotthinā abhinibbhijjituṃ. taṃ kissa hetu? tathā hi, bhikkhave, kukkuṭiyā aṇḍāni na sammā adhisayitāni, na sammā pariseditāni, na sammā paribhāvitāni. evamevaṃ kho, bhikkhave, bhāvanaṃ ananuyuttassa bhikkhuno viharato kiñcāpi evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimucceyyā’ti, atha khvassa neva anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimuccati. taṃ kissa hetu? ‘abhāvitattā’tissa vacanīyaṃ. kissa abhāvitattā? catunnaṃ satipaṭṭhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ sammappadhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ iddhipādānaṃ, pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ, pañcannaṃ balānaṃ, sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ, ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa

Suppose there was a chicken with eight or ten or twelve eggs. But she had not properly sat on them to keep them warm and incubated. Even if that chicken might wish: ‘If only my chicks could break out of the eggshell with their claws and beak and hatch safely!’ Still they can’t break out and hatch safely. Why is that? Because she has not properly sat on them to keep them warm and incubated. In the same way, when a bhikkhu is not committed to development, they might wish: ‘If only my mind was freed from the defilements by not grasping!’ Even so, their mind is not freed from defilements by not grasping. Why is that? It’s because they’re undeveloped. Undeveloped in what? The four kinds of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, and the noble eightfold path.

bhāvanaṃ anuyuttassa, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno viharato kiñcāpi na evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimucceyyā’ti, atha khvassa anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimuccati. taṃ kissa hetu? ‘bhāvitattā’tissa vacanīyaṃ. kissa bhāvitattā? catunnaṃ satipaṭṭhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ sammappadhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ iddhipādānaṃ, pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ, pañcannaṃ balānaṃ, sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ, ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa.

When a bhikkhu is committed to development, they might not wish: ‘If only my mind was freed from the defilements by not grasping!’ Even so, their mind is freed from defilements by not grasping. Why is that? It’s because they’re developed. Developed in what? The four kinds of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, and the noble eightfold path.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, kukkuṭiyā aṇḍāni aṭṭha vā dasa vā dvādasa vā. tānassu kukkuṭiyā sammā adhisayitāni, sammā pariseditāni, sammā paribhāvitāni. kiñcāpi tassā kukkuṭiyā na evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me kukkuṭapotakā pādanakhasikhāya vā mukhatuṇḍakena vā aṇḍakosaṃ padāletvā sotthinā abhinibbhijjeyyun’ti, atha kho bhabbāva te kukkuṭapotakā pādanakhasikhāya vā mukhatuṇḍakena vā aṇḍakosaṃ padāletvā sotthinā abhinibbhijjituṃ. taṃ kissa hetu? tathā hi, bhikkhave, kukkuṭiyā aṇḍāni sammā adhisayitāni, sammā pariseditāni, sammā paribhāvitāni. evamevaṃ kho, bhikkhave, bhāvanaṃ anuyuttassa bhikkhuno viharato kiñcāpi na evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimucceyyā’ti, atha khvassa anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimuccati. taṃ kissa hetu? ‘bhāvitattā’tissa vacanīyaṃ. kissa bhāvitattā? catunnaṃ satipaṭṭhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ sammappadhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ iddhipādānaṃ, pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ, pañcannaṃ balānaṃ, sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ, ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa.

Suppose there was a chicken with eight or ten or twelve eggs. And she properly sat on them to keep them warm and incubated. Even if that chicken doesn’t wish: ‘If only my chicks could break out of the eggshell with their claws and beak and hatch safely!’ But still they can break out and hatch safely. Why is that? Because she properly sat on them to keep them warm and incubated. In the same way, when a bhikkhu is committed to development, they might not wish: ‘If only my mind was freed from the defilements by not grasping!’ Even so, their mind is freed from defilements by not grasping. Why is that? It’s because they’re developed. Developed in what? The four kinds of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, and the noble eightfold path.


The Akammaniya Vagga explains that an undeveloped mind is unwieldy, harmful, brings suffering, whereas a developed one is workable, beneficial, and brings happiness.

Between AN 1.394 and AN 1.574, it is said about a bhikkhu who develops any of the 181 practices mentioned that he 'is called a bhikkhu who does not lack absorption, who follows the Teacher’s instructions, who responds to advice, and who does not eat the country’s alms in vain.' (arittajjhāno viharati, satthusāsanakaro ovādapatikaro, amoghaṃ raṭṭhapiṇḍaṃ bhuñjati’).


Bodhi leaf





bhavarāga: [bhava+rāga]

avidity for (a state of) existence, for life, for becoming, for the process of existence, for repeated existence.

Bhava·taṇhā is generally regarded as a synonym. Bhava·rāga is one of the seven anusayas (AN 7.11). It also one in a list of seven saṃyojanas (AN 7.8).

One consequence of bhava·rāga is mentioned in the Rūpārāma Sutta:


SN 35.136

bhavarāgaparetebhi, bhavarāgānusārībhi. māradheyyānupannehi, nāyaṃ dhammo susambudho.

This Dhamma isn’t easily understood By those afflicted with lust for existence, Who flow along in the stream of existence, Deeply mired in Māra’s realm.


As one might have expected, it is explained in the Yoga Sutta that the cause for the arising of bhava·rāga is not discerning the real characteristics of bhava, and the cause for preventing its arising is the presence of such a discernment:


AN 4.10

“bhavayogo ca kathaṃ hoti? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti. tassa bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ appajānato yo bhavesu bhavarāgo bhavanandī bhavasneho bhavamucchā bhavapipāsā bhavapariḷāho bhavajjhosānaṃ bhavataṇhā sānuseti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhavayogo. iti kāmayogo bhavayogo.

And how is there the bond of existence? Here, someone does not understand as they really are the origin and the passing away, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to states of existence. When one does not understand these things as they really are, then lust for existence, delight in existence, affection for existence, infatuation with existence, thirst for existence, passion for existence, attachment to existence, and craving for existence lie deep within one in regard to states of existence. This is called the bond of existence.

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“bhavayogavisaṃyogo ca kathaṃ hoti? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti. tassa bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ pajānato yo bhavesu bhavarāgo bhavanandī bhavasneho bhavamucchā bhavapipāsā bhavapariḷāho bhavajjhosānaṃ bhavataṇhā sā nānuseti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhavayogavisaṃyogo. iti kāmayogavisaṃyogo bhavayogavisaṃyogo.

And how is there the severance of the bond of existence? Here, someone understands as they really are the origin and the passing away, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to states of existence. When one understands these things as they really are, then lust for existence, delight in existence, affection for existence, infatuation with existence, thirst for existence, passion for existence, attachment to existence, and craving for existence do not lie within one in regard to states of existence. This is called the severance of the bond of existence.


The Aniccasaññā Sutta explains that cultivating anicca·saññā is the way to eliminate bhava·rāga


SN 22.102

“aniccasaññā, bhikkhave, bhāvitā bahulīkatā sabbaṃ kāmarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanati”.

Bhikkhus, when the perception of impermanence is developed and cultivated, it eliminates all sensual lust, it eliminates all lust for existence, it eliminates all ignorance, it uproots all conceit ‘I am.’


Bodhi leaf





bhavataṇhā: [bhava+taṇhā]

craving for (a state of) existence, for life, for becoming, for the process of existence, for repeated existence.

Bhava·rāga is generally regarded as a synonym. Bhava·taṇhā is one of the three types of taṇhā listed in the standard exposition of taṇhā, particularly in the context of dukkha·samudaya ariya·sacca:


SN 56.11

“katamañca, bhikkhave, dukkhasamudayaṃ ariyasaccaṃ? yāyaṃ taṇhā ponobbhavikā nandīrāgasahagatā tatratatrābhinandinī, seyyathidaṃ kāmataṇhā bhavataṇhā vibhavataṇhā.

“Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is this craving which leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there; that is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination.


Bhava·taṇhā is often mentioned together with avijjā as something to be abandoned:


katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā? avijjā ca bhavataṇhā ca. ime, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā.

“And what, bhikkhus, are the things to be abandoned by direct knowledge? Ignorance and craving for existence. These are the things to be abandoned by direct knowledge.


The Taṇhā Sutta sheds light on this association:


“purimā, bhikkhave, koṭi na paññāyati bhavataṇhāya: ‘ito pubbe bhavataṇhā nāhosi, atha pacchā samabhavī’ti. evañcetaṃ, bhikkhave, vuccati, atha ca pana paññāyati: ‘idappaccayā bhavataṇhā’’ti.

“Bhikkhus, it is said: ‘A first point of craving for existence, bhikkhus, is not seen such that before this there was no craving for existence and afterward it came into being.’ Still, craving for existence is seen to have a specific condition.

bhavataṇhāmpāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sāhāraṃ vadāmi, no anāhāraṃ. ko cāhāro bhavataṇhāya? ‘avijjā’tissa vacanīyaṃ.

“I say, bhikkhus, that craving for existence has a nutriment; it is not without nutriment. And what is the nutriment for craving for existence? It should be said: ignorance.


The Yoga Sutta further explains that the cause for the arising of bhava·taṇhā is not discerning the real characteristics of bhava, and the cause for preventing its arising is the presence of such a discernment:


AN 4.10

“bhavayogo ca kathaṃ hoti? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti. tassa bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ appajānato yo bhavesu bhavarāgo bhavanandī bhavasneho bhavamucchā bhavapipāsā bhavapariḷāho bhavajjhosānaṃ bhavataṇhā sānuseti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhavayogo. iti kāmayogo bhavayogo.

And how is there the bond of existence? Here, someone does not understand as they really are the origin and the passing away, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to states of existence. When one does not understand these things as they really are, then lust for existence, delight in existence, affection for existence, infatuation with existence, thirst for existence, passion for existence, attachment to existence, and craving for existence lie deep within one in regard to states of existence. This is called the bond of existence.

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“bhavayogavisaṃyogo ca kathaṃ hoti? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti. tassa bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ pajānato yo bhavesu bhavarāgo bhavanandī bhavasneho bhavamucchā bhavapipāsā bhavapariḷāho bhavajjhosānaṃ bhavataṇhā sā nānuseti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhavayogavisaṃyogo. iti kāmayogavisaṃyogo bhavayogavisaṃyogo.

And how is there the severance of the bond of existence? Here, someone understands as they really are the origin and the passing away, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to states of existence. When one understands these things as they really are, then lust for existence, delight in existence, affection for existence, infatuation with existence, thirst for existence, passion for existence, attachment to existence, and craving for existence do not lie within one in regard to states of existence. This is called the severance of the bond of existence.


The removal of bhava·taṇhā is mentioned in the case of the Buddha, e.g. at AN 4.1 (ucchinnā bhavataṇhā, craving for existence has been destroyed).


Bodhi leaf





bhesajja:

remedy, medicament, medicine. Often appears in the compound gilāna·ppaccaya·bhesajja·parikkhārā (medicines and provisions for the sick).

Bhesajja constitutes one of the four paccayas, requisites of a bhikkhu's life. The general principle underlying their use is regularly laid out in the suttas:


AN 6.58

paṭisaṅkhā yoniso gilānappaccayabhesajjaparikkhāraṃ paṭisevati: ‘yāvadeva uppannānaṃ veyyābādhikānaṃ vedanānaṃ paṭighātāya, abyābajjhaparamatāyā’ti

Properly considering medicinal requisites for curing the sick, he uses them: simply to ward off any feelings of illness that have arisen, and for the maximum freedom from disease.


Fermented urine (pūti·muttaṃ) is often recommended by the Buddha as medicine for a bhikkhu:


AN 4.27

pūtimuttaṃ, bhikkhave, bhesajjānaṃ appañca sulabhañca, tañca anavajjaṃ

Fermented urine, bhikkhus, is a very little thing among medicines, easy to get and blameless


Fermented urine is actually recommended to all newly ordained bhikkhus at the end of the ordination ceremony, in a part titled 'admonition': 'The Blessed One has given permission that, when one as been accepted, one be told the four supports, together with the four things never to be done' (Anuññāsi kho bhagavā upasampādetvā cattāro nissaye cattāri ca akaraṇīyāni ācikkhituṃ.)


Vinaya Piṭaka, mahākhandhako, cattāro nissayā (64)

“pūtimuttabhesajjaṃ nissāya pabbajjā. tattha te yāvajīvaṃ ussāho karaṇīyo. atirekalābho: sappi, navanītaṃ, telaṃ, madhu, phāṇitan”ti.

Going-Forth has fermented urine medicine as its support. For the rest of your life you are to endeavor at that. The extra allowances are: ghee, fresh butter, oil, honey, sugar.


Thanissaro Bhikkhu notes, in BMC2:

A bhikkhu’s basic medicinal support is pūti-mutta-bhesajja, which translates literally as “rancid urine medicine” (Mv.I.30.4). Strangely, none of the texts define the term. The commentaries to the Khuddakapatha, Ud›na, and Sutta Nipata give an example of this sort of medicine—rancid urine with yellow myrobalan—but without a formal definition to indicate the full range of the term. The Sub-commentary to the Vinaya defines rancid urine as any sort of urine at all, citing as a parallel the Pali expression pūti-kaya, decomposing body, which refers to any human body, living or dead, “even one with golden skin.” However, it does not say whether rancid urine medicine is the rancid urine itself or, as suggested by the example from the commentaries, rancid urine in which medicinal fruits are pickled.

Because the texts are vague about this term, various oral traditions have developed around it. In Sri Lanka, rancid urine medicine is interpreted as rancid cow’s urine, in which different types of myrobalan are sometimes pickled. In Thailand, some Communities interpret it as one’s own first urine in the morning, following the ancient Indian tradition of using this urine as a tonic. (Modern scientists have discovered that this urine contains a high level of melatonin.)

Bhikkhu Subhuti writes in his book Going for Broke, about the main Pa Auk monastery in Myanmar:

As a bhikkhu, we are told on our ordination day that our only medicine is Bull Urine! From time to time, there are these big jugs left at the bottom of the monastery mountain waiting to be carried up to my teacher's kuti. Can you guess what the jugs are filled with? They take these bitter medicinal fruits, dry them in the sun, and then soak them in the bull urine for three months! Afterwards, they dry them in the sun again. It sounds a lot worse than it actually is. I ate many of these dried and soaked fruits for almost three years before I knew the process! They are supposed to be very good for you. The locals and now myself call these fruits, "Monk Chocolate!"

Moreover, attaining the four jhanas and reflecting upon eight great thoughts is said to allow one to be contented with fermented urine as sole medicine:


AN 8.30

yato kho tvaṃ, anuruddha, ime ca aṭṭha mahāpurisavitakke vitakkessasi, imesañca catunnaṃ jhānānaṃ ābhicetasikānaṃ diṭṭhadhammasukhavihārānaṃ nikāmalābhī bhavissasi akicchalābhī akasiralābhī, tato tuyhaṃ, anuruddha, seyyathāpi nāma gahapatissa vā gahapatiputtassa vā nānābhesajjāni, seyyathidaṃ — sappi navanītaṃ telaṃ madhu phāṇitaṃ; evamevaṃ te pūtimuttabhesajjaṃ khāyissati santuṭṭhassa viharato ratiyā aparitassāya phāsuvihārāya okkamanāya nibbānassa.

When you reflect upon these eight great thoughts and obtain at will, without trouble nor difficulty, these four jhānas that belong to the higher mind and are pleasant dwellings in this observable world, then, just as various medicines seem to a householder or a householder’s son, that is to say ghee, butter, oil, honey, and molasses, even so your medicine of fermented cow’s urine will seem to you while you dwell contentedly, and it will serve for your delight, relief, and ease, and for entering upon nibbāna.


As is the case for the other four paccayas, the Buddha frequently recommends being contented with any kind of medicine (santuṭṭho hoti itarītarena gilāna·ppaccaya·bhesajja·parikkhārena). At AN 5.128, being contented with any kind of medicine is a type of 'happiness for an ascetic' (samaṇa·sukha). At AN 5.127, it is a condition to be able to 'live apart from the sangha' (saṅghamhā vapakāsituṃ).

♦ At AN 4.60, a noble disciple (or disciple of the noble ones, ariya·sāvaka) practicing the way proper to the layperson (gihi·sāmīci·paṭipadaṃ paṭipanno), a way that brings the attainment of fame and leads to heaven (yaso·paṭilābhiniṃ sagga·saṃvattanikaṃ), serves the Saṅgha of bhikkhus with medicines and provisions for the sick (bhikkhu·saṅghaṃ paccupaṭṭhito hoti gilāna·ppaccaya-bhesajja-parikkhārena).

♦ At AN 4.51 and AN 5.45, when a bhikkhu using medicines and provisions for the sick practices 'a measureless concentration of mind' (appamāṇa ceto·samādhi) [defined as the four brahmavihāras at MN 43], it brings to the giver of said medicines 'a measureless stream of merit, stream of the wholesome, nutriment of happiness—heavenly, ripening in happiness, conducive to heaven—that lead to what is wished for, desired, and agreeable, to one’s welfare and happiness' (appamāṇo tassa puññ·ābhisando kusal·ābhisando sukhass·āhāro sovaggiko sukha·vipāko sagga·saṃvattaniko iṭṭhāya kantāya manāpāya hitāya sukhāya saṃvattati).

♦ At AN 5.223, one of the disadvantages of staying too long [in the same monastery] (ādīnavā atinivāse) is that one comes to have many medicines and accumulate many medicines (bahubhesajjo hoti bahubhesajjasannicayo). In a similar logic, at MN 124, ven. Bakkula says that in 80 years since he has gone forth, he doesn't recall ever having carried medicine around, even as much as a piece of gallnut (asīti me, āvuso, vassāni pabbajitassa.. nābhijānāmi bhesajjaṃ upaharitā, antamaso haritakikhaṇḍampi).

♦ In DN 2, it is stated that administrating medicines as a way of livelihood is considered a wrong livelihood (tiracchāna·vijjā [litt: animal-knowledge], micch·ājīva) for a bhikkhu.


The five tonics (pañca paṭisāyanīyāni bhesajjāni)

In his Buddhist Monastic Code (BMC), Ajahn Thanissaro translates the Commentary from the Vibhanga and explains:

"Here is the story of how the tonics came to be a special class:

“Then as the Blessed One was alone in seclusion, this line of reasoning occurred to his mind: ‘At present the bhikkhus, afflicted by the autumn disease, bring up the conjey they have drunk and the meals they have eaten. Because of this they are thin, wretched, unattractive, and pale, their bodies covered with veins. What if I were to allow medicine for them that would be both medicine and agreed to be medicine by the world, and serve as food, yet would not be considered gross (substantial) food.’ “Then this thought occurred to him: ‘There are these five tonics — ghee, fresh butter, oil, honey, sugar/molasses — that are both medicine and agreed to be medicine by the world, and serve as food yet would not be considered gross food. What if I were now to allow the bhikkhus, having accepted them at the right time (from dawnrise to noon), to consume them at the right time’.... “Now at that time bhikkhus, having accepted the five tonics at the right time, consumed them at the right time. Because of this they could not stomach even ordinary coarse foods, much less rich, greasy ones. As a result, afflicted both by the autumn disease and this loss of appetite for meals, they became even more thin and wretched.... So the Blessed One, with regard to this cause, having given a Dhamma talk, addressed the bhikkhus: ‘Bhikkhus, I allow that the five tonics, having been accepted, be consumed at the right time or the wrong time (from noon to dawnrise).’” —Mv.VI.1.2-5

"The Vibhanga defines the five tonics as follows:

"Ghee means strained, boiled butter oil made from the milk of any animal whose flesh is allowable for bhikkhus to eat

"Fresh butter must be made from the milk of any animal whose flesh is allowable. None of the Vinaya texts go into detail on how fresh butter is made, but MN 126 describes the process as “having sprinkled curds in a pot, one twirls them with a churn.” Fresh butter of this sort is still made in India today by taking a small churn — looking like an orange with alternate sections removed, attached to a small stick — and twirling it in curds, all the while sprinkling them with water. The fresh butter — mostly milk fat — coagulates on the churn, and when the fresh butter is removed, what is left in the pot is diluted buttermilk. Fresh butter, unlike creamery butter made by churning cream, may be stored unrefrigerated in bottles for several days even in the heat of India without going rancid.

"Arguing by the Great Standards, creamery butter would obviously come under fresh butter here. A more controversial topic is cheese.

"In Mv.VI.34.21, the Buddha allows bhikkhus to consume five products of the cow: milk, curds, buttermilk, fresh butter, and ghee. Apparently, cheese — curds heated to evaporate their liquid content and then cured with or without mold — was unknown in those days, but there seems every reason, using the Great Standards, to include it under one of the five. The question is which one. Some have argued that it should come under fresh butter, but the argument for classifying it under curds seems stronger, as it is closer to curds in composition and is generally regarded as more of a substantial food. Different Communities, however, have differing opinions on this matter.

"Oil, according to the Vibhanga, includes sesame oil, mustard seed oil, “honey tree” oil, castor oil, and oil from tallow. The Commentary adds that oil made from any plants not listed in the Vibhaºga carries a dukka ̨a if kept more than seven days, although it would seem preferable to use the Great Standards and simply apply the full offense under this rule to all plant oils that can be used as food; and to class as medicines (see BMC2, Chapter 5) any aromatic plant oils — such as tea - tree oil or peppermint oil — made from leaves or resins that qualify as medicines that can be kept for life.

"Honey means the honey of bees, although the Commentary lists two species of bee — cirika, long and with wings, and tumbala, large, black and with hard wings — whose honey it says is very viscous and ranks as a medicine, not as one of the five tonics.

"Sugar/molasses the Vibhanga defines simply as what is extracted from sugar cane."

Bhante Ariyesako notes in A Guide for Laypeople: "There are various translations and interpretations about these 'tonic- medicines' — according to different Communities and different countries. Some places consider only liquids allowable while a few communities will drink only plain water in the afternoon. Some communities will not accept re-offered tonic-medicines (after the seven days period is over), some will under certain circumstances."

"Some contemporary observations:"

"The main effectiveness of these medicines seems to be in their nutritional value. They do not have medicinal value as commonly understood today, for example, relieving pain or as an antiseptic. However, as nutriment they would help to maintain bodily strength and assist in recuperation while, since they are so rich, would not be a substitute for normal food." (The Heritage of the Sangha ch.10)

In the pātimokkha, there are two rules mentioning the use of medicine. The first one is Nissaggiya Pācittiya #23 and deals with 'tonic-medicines':


NP 23

"yāni kho pana tāni gilānānaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ paṭisāya nīyāni bhesajjāni, seyyathidaṃ, sappi navanītaṃ telaṃ madhu phāṇitaṃ, tāni taṭiggahetvā sattāharamaṃ sannidhikārakaṃ paribuñjitabbāni. taṃ atikkāmayato nissaggiyaṃ pācittiyaṃ."

There are these tonics to be taken by sick bhikkhus: ghee, fresh butter, oil, honey, sugar/molasses. Having been received, they are to be used from storage seven days at most. Beyond that, they are to be forfeited and confessed.


The other rule regarding the use of medicine is the Pācittiya #47. It actually applies more generally to the four paccayas:


Pc 47

"agilānena bhikkhunā catumāsappaccayapavāraṇā sāditabbā aññatra punapavāraṇāya, aññatra niccapavāraṇāya. tato ce uttari sādiyeyya. pācittiyaṃ."

A bhikkhu who is not ill may accept (make use of) a four-month invitation to ask for requisites. If he should accept (make use of) it beyond that — unless the invitation is renewed or is permanent — it is to be confessed.


Here are the Khandaka rules (lesser rules) from the Vinaya for the five tonics:

“I allow that the five tonics, having been accepted at the right time, be consumed at the right time.”—Mv.VI.1.3

“I allow that the five tonics, having been accepted, be consumed at the right time or the wrong time.”—Mv.VI.1.5

“There are these tonics to be taken by sick bhikkhus: ghee, butter, oil, honey, sugarmolasses. Having been received, they may be used from storage seven days at most. Beyond that, one is to be dealt with in accordance with the rule (NP 23).”—Mv.VI.15.10

“Even though, to bind it together, they mix flour or ashes (§) into sugar lumps and it still counts as sugar, I allow that sugar be consumed as much as you like.”—Mv.VI.16.1

“I allow sugar lumps for a bhikkhu who is ill, and sugar-lump water for one who is not ill.”—Mv.VI.27

“I allow that tallow-medicine—i.e., tallow from bears, tallow from fish, tallow from alligators, tallow from pigs, tallow from donkeys—be consumed as oil if received in the right time, rendered in the right time, and filtered (§) in the right time.”—Mv.VI.2.1


Life-long Medicines (yāvajīvaṃ bhesajjāni)

Thanissaro Bhikkhu notes, in BMC2:

Six types of edibles are classed as life-long medicines: root medicine, astringent decoction medicine, leaf medicine, fruit medicine, resin medicine, and salt medicine. The Canon lists specific examples for each type. As the Canon itself makes clear, any medicine that would come under these six classes—as long as it does not serve as a staple or non-staple food—is allowed. One may keep the medicine for life and consume it when there is a medicinal reason for doing so. If there is no such reason, there is a dukkaṭa for consuming it.

Here are the Khandaka rules:

“I allow that, having accepted root-medicine—i.e., turmeric, ginger, sweet flag, white orris root, ativisa, black hellebore, khus-khus, nut-grass, or whatever other roots are medicines and do not serve, among non-staple food, the purpose of non-staple food; or, among staple food, the purpose of staple food—one may keep it for life and, when there is reason, consume it. If there is no reason, there is an offense of wrong doing for one who consumes it.”—Mv.VI.3.1

“Garlic should not be eaten. Whoever should eat it: an offense of wrong doing” .… “I allow that garlic be eaten in the case of illness.”—Cv.V.34.1-2

“I allow a grindstone and a grinding wheel.”—Mv.VI.3.2

“I allow that, having accepted astringent-decoction medicine—i.e., astringent decoctions from the neem-tree, from the kuṭaja, from the pakkava, from the nattamāla, or whatever other astringent decoctions are medicines and do not serve, among nonstaple food, the purpose of non-staple food; or, among staple food, the purpose of staple food—one may keep it for life and, when there is reason, consume it. If there is no reason, there is an offense of wrong doing for one who consumes it.”—Mv.VI.4

“I allow that, having accepted leaf-medicine—i.e., neem leaves, kuṭaja leaves, cucumber leaves, basil leaves, cotton tree leaves, or whatever other leaves are medicines and do not serve, among non-staple food, the purpose of non-staple food; or, among staple food, the purpose of staple food—one may keep it for life and, when there is reason, consume it. If there is no reason, there is an offense of wrong doing for one who consumes it.”—Mv.VI.5

“I allow that, having accepted fruit-medicine—i.e., vilanga, long pepper, black pepper, yellow myrobalan, beleric myrobalan, embric myrobalan, go˛ha, or whatever other fruits are medicines and do not serve, among non-staple food, the purpose of nonstaple food; or, among staple food, the purpose of staple food—one may keep it for life and, when there is reason, consume it. If there is no reason, there is an offense of wrong doing for one who consumes it.”—Mv.VI.6

“I allow that, having accepted resin-medicine—i.e., assafoetida, assafoetida-resin, assafoetida-gum, gum, gum-patti, gum-panni, or whatever other resins are medicines and do not serve, among non-staple food, the purpose of non-staple food; or, among staple food, the purpose of staple food—one may keep it for life and, when there is reason, consume it. If there is no reason, there is an offense of wrong doing for one who consumes it.”—Mv.VI.7

“I allow that, having accepted salt-medicine—i.e., sea salt, black salt, rock salt, culinary salt, red salt, or whatever other salts are medicines and do not serve, among non-staple food, the purpose of non-staple food; or, among staple food, the purpose of staple food—one may keep it for life and, when there is reason, consume it. If there is no reason, there is an offense of wrong doing for one who consumes it.”—Mv.VI.8


Specific treatments

Thanissaro Bhikkhu notes: 'Historically, this list, together with similar lists in the Vinayas of the other early schools, has played an important part in the spread of medical knowledge from India to the lands to which Buddhism spread in the rest of Asia. At present, it gives a fascinating picture of the state of medical art in the Buddha’s time.'

Here is a list of Khandaka rules that he quotes in BMC2:

“I allow powders as medicines for one who has an itch, a small boil, a running sore, or an affliction of thick scabs; or for one whose body smells bad; I allow (powdered) dung, clay, and dye-dregs for one who is not ill. I allow a pestle and mortar.”—Mv.VI.9.2

“I allow a powder sifter .… I allow a cloth sifter.”—Mv.VI.10.1

“I allow, for one who is afflicted (possessed) by non-human beings, raw flesh and raw blood.”—Mv.VI.10.2

“I allow (eye) ointments: black collyrium, rasa-ointment (made with vitriol?), sotaointment (made with antimony?), yellow orpiment (§), lamp-black” .… “I allow (mixed in the ointments) sandalwood, tagara, benzoin gum, t›lısa, nut-grass.”—Mv.VI.11.2

“I allow an ointment box” .… “One should not use fancy ointment boxes. Whoever does: an offense of wrong doing. I allow (ointment boxes) made of bone, ivory, horn, reed, bamboo, wood, lac (resin), fruit (§) (e.g., coconut shell), copper (metal), or conchshell.”—Mv.VI.12.1

“I allow a lid” .… “I allow, having tied it with thread/string, to tie it to the ointmentbox” .… “(An ointment box became split) I allow it to be bound together with thread/string.”—Mv.VI.12.2

“I allow an ointment stick” .… “One should not use fancy ointment sticks. Whoever does: an offense of wrong doing. I allow (ointment sticks) made of bone, ivory, horn, reed, bamboo, wood, lac (resin), fruit (§) (e.g., coconut shell), copper (metal), or conchshell.”—Mv.VI.12.3

“I allow a case for (ointment) sticks” .… “I allow a bag for the ointment box” .… “I allow a string for tying the mouth of the bag as a carrying strap.”—Mv.VI.12.4

“I allow oil for the head” .… “I allow treatment through the nose” .… “I allow a nosetube (or nose-spoon)” .… “One should not use fancy nose tubes. Whoever does: an offense of wrong doing. I allow (nose tubes) made of bone, ivory, horn, reed, bamboo, wood, lac (resin), fruit (§) (e.g., coconut shell), copper (metal), or conch-shell.”— Mv.VI.13.1

“I allow a double nose-tube” .… “I allow that smoke be inhaled” .… “I allow a tube for inhaling smoke” .… “One should not use fancy smoke-inhaling tubes. Whoever does: an offense of wrong doing. I allow (smoke-inhaling tubes) made of bone, ivory, horn, reed, bamboo, wood, lac (resin), fruit (§) (e.g., coconut shell), copper (metal), or conch-shell” .… “I allow a lid (for the smoke-inhaling tubes)” .… “I allow a bag for the smokeinhaling tubes” .… “I allow a double bag” .… “I allow a string for tying the mouth of the bag as a carrying strap.”—Mv.VI.13.1

(For wind afflictions): “I allow a decoction of oil” .… “I allow that alcohol be mixed in the decoction of oil” .… “Oil mixed with too much alcohol should not be drunk. Whoever drinks it is to be dealt with in accordance with the rule (Pc 51). I allow that when neither the color, the smell, nor the taste of alcohol can be detected in the decoction of oil, this sort of oil mixed with alcohol may be drunk.”—Mv.VI.14.1 (When too much alcohol has been mixed with oil): “I allow that it be determined as rubbing-oil” .… “I allow (for oil) three kinds of flasks: a metal flask, a wood flask, a fruit flask.”—Mv.VI.14.2

(For wind affliction in the limbs): “I allow a sweating treatment” .… “I allow a sweating treatment with herbs … a ‘great-sweating’ treatment … hemp water … a water tub.”— Mv.VI.14.3

(For wind afflictions in the joints): “I allow blood-letting … moxibustion (§)” .… (For split feet): “I allow rubbing oil for the feet .… I allow that a foot salve be prepared” .… (For boils): “I allow lancing (surgery) .… I allow astringent water .… I allow pounded sesame paste.”—Mv.VI.14.4

(For boils, continued): “I allow a compress … a bandage … that it be sprinkled with mustard-seed powder (to prevent itching)” .… “I allow fumigating” .… “I allow that (scar-tissue) be cut off with a piece of salt-crystal” .… “I allow oil for the sore/wound” .… “I allow an old piece of cloth for soaking up the oil and every kind of treatment for sores/ wounds.”—Mv.VI.14.5

(For snakebite): “I allow that the four great filthy things be given: excrement, urine, ashes, clay” .… “I allow, when there is someone to make them allowable, that one have him make them allowable; when there is no one to make them allowable, that having taken them oneself one consume them” .… (For drinking poison): “I allow that water mixed with excrement be drunk” .… “I allow (excrement) that one received while making it as having been received in and of itself (§). It does not need to be received again.”—Mv.VI.14.6

(For drinking a sorcery concoction): “ I allow that mud turned up by the plow be drunk” .… (For constipation): “I allow that alkaline juice be drunk” .… (For jaundice): “I allow that urine and yellow myrobalan be drunk” .… (For skin disease): “I allow that a scented rubbing be done” .… (For a body full of bad humors): “I allow that a purgative be drunk” .… (After taking a purgative) “I allow clarified conjey .… I allow clear green gram broth .… I allow slightly thick green gram broth .… I allow meat broth.”— Mv.VI.14.7

“I allow that a bhikkhu who is ill may consume loṇasovīraka (loṇasocīraka) as much as he likes, and that one who is not ill may consume it mixed with water as a beverage.”— Mv.VI.16.3


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bhikkhu:

person who has decided to dedicate his life to the practice of dhamma and adopts the medicant life, living on what is given spontaneously.

A bhikkhu is characterized by poverty, celibacy, renunciation, humility and steadfastness in practice. He submits himself to the rules he chose to undertake, and which are defined by the pātimokkha, having eventually amounted to 227. He can however give up this life at any time by an official act if he finds himself unable to keep following it. Female bhikkhus are called bhikkhunis.


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bhikkhuni:

Female bhikkhu.

Bhikkhunis have to abserve 311 precepts.


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bho:

familiar term of address which is used to inferiors and equals by brahmins. In the suttas, brahmins typically address the Buddha by the expression 'Bho Gotama'.


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bhojane mattaññutā: [bhojana mattā+aññū+]

moderation with food - lit: knowing the right measure in food.

This practice is described in a stock formula which is analyzed in detail here. It is the same formula which describes the proper use of piṇḍapāta, as one of the four paccayas. A simile is given at SN 35.192:


SN 35.192

seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, puriso vaṇaṃ ālimpeyya yāvadeva rohanatthāya, seyyathā vā pana akkhaṃ abbhañjeyya yāvadeva bhārassa nittharaṇatthāya, evaṃ kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu paṭisaṅkhā yoniso āhāraṃ āhāreti

Just as a man would anoint a wound only for the purpose of healing, or just as he would grease an axle only for the purpose of transporting a load, in the same way a bhikkhu, reflecting wisely, takes food


♦ In the suttas, the expression bhojane mattaññutā is generally accompanied by indriyesu guttadvāratā and jāgariyaṃ anuyoga. At SN 35.192, when a bhikkhu practices all three, he lives full of happiness and joy in this very life (diṭṭh·eva dhamme sukha·somanassa·bahulo viharati), and he has laid a foundation for the destruction of the āsavas (yoni cassa āraddhā hoti āsavānaṃ khayāya). At AN 3.16, the bhikkhu is also said to walk the faultless path (apaṇṇaka·paṭipadaṃ paṭipanno hoti).

♦ At AN 6.77, bhojane mattaññutā contributes to make it 'possible to gain a superhuman state, a distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones' (bhabbo uttari-manussa-dhammaṃ alam-ariya-ñāṇa·dassana-visesaṃ sacchikātuṃ).

♦ At AN 6.117-118, bhojane mattaññutā is a necessary condition to practice the four satipaṭṭhānas.

♦ In the Vinaya, in the origin story to the pātimokkha rule Pd 3, some bhikkhus accept food from a poor family who gives so much as to become poorer, and people criticize these bhikkhus for not knowing the measure: "kathañhi nāma samaṇā sakyaputtiyā na mattaṃ jānitvā paṭiggahessanti!" (“How can the recluses, sons of the Sakyans, not knowing moderation, accept?).


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bodhi:

awakening, enlightenment, supreme knowledge, the knowledge possessed by a Buddha.

The verb bodheti means to wake up (from sleep), to awaken (to the truth), to enlighten. It is the causative of bujjhati (to be awake, to perceive, to know, recognise, understand). The verb bodheti is used at SN 7.10 in the sentence 'sottaṃ pādena bodheti' (she wakes him up with the foot).

An equivalent term used in the suttas is bodha.

See also sambodhi and sammāsambodhi (both terms are more frequently used in the suttas).

The term may be equated to arahatta and is explicitly used to refer to the Buddha's enlightenment under a banyan tree at Uruvelā (believed to be present day Bodhgaya):


SN 4.1

ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā uruvelāyaṃ viharati najjā nerañjarāya tīre ajapālanigrodhamūle paṭhamābhisambuddho. atha kho bhagavato rahogatassa paṭisallīnassa evaṃ cetaso parivitakko udapādi:

At one time, when he was first awakened, the Buddha was staying near Uruvela at the root of the goatherd’s banyan tree on the bank of the Nerañjara River. Then as he was in private retreat this thought came to his mind:

“mutto vatamhi tāya dukkarakārikāya. sādhu mutto vatamhi tāya anatthasaṃhitāya dukkarakārikāya. sādhu vatamhi mutto bodhiṃ samajjhagan”ti

“I am truly freed from that grueling work! Thank goodness I’m freed from that pointless grueling work. Thank goodness that, steadfast and mindful, I have attained awakening.”


Sometimes (particularly in the Udāna, e.g. at Ud 1.1) the expression 'bodhi·rukkha·mūle' (at the foot [litt: root] of the awakening's tree) is used to explain that the Buddha is sitting under the tree where he reached enlightenment.

Bodha (=bodhi) is explicitly said to be the goal teaching the Dhamma at MN 35: 'buddho so bhagavā bodhāya dhammaṃ deseti' (the Fortunate one, being awakened, teaches the Dhamma for [the purpose of] awakening).

The instance in which the term is the most used (especially in the AN) is in the definition of saddhā:


AN 5.2

ariyasāvako saddho hoti, saddahati tathāgatassa bodhiṃ: ‘itipi so bhagavā arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno sugato lokavidū anuttaro purisadammasārathi satthā devamanussānaṃ buddho bhagavā’ti.

a noble disciple has faith, he trusts the Realized One’s awakening: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’


A derived term which is frequently used in the suttas is bojjhaṅga [bodhi+aṅga]. Another derived term which is sometimes used in the suttas is bodhi·pakkhiyā dhammā. Both terms denote qualities to develop in order to reach bodhi (see details under their respective definitions).

At SN 12.65, understanding paṭicca·samuppāda is said to be the path to bodha:


SN 12.65

“tassa mayhaṃ, bhikkhave, etadahosi: adhigato kho myāyaṃ maggo bodhāya. yadidaṃ: nāmarūpanirodhā viññāṇanirodho; viññāṇanirodhā nāmarūpanirodho; nāmarūpanirodhā saḷāyatananirodho; saḷāyatananirodhā phassanirodho ... pe ... evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa nirodho hoti.

Then it occurred to me: I have discovered the path to awakening. That is: When name and form cease, consciousness ceases. When consciousness ceases, name and form cease. When name and form cease, the six sense fields cease. When the six sense fields cease, contact ceases. … That is how this entire mass of suffering ceases.


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bodhipakkhiyā dhammā: [bodhi+pakkhiya + dhamma]

things / mental states associated with enlightenment, qualities that lead to awakening.

The term is explicitly defined six times in the Indriya Saṃyutta and refers to the five indriyas, especially paññā:


SN 48.51

“katame ca, bhikkhave, bodhipakkhiyā dhammā? saddhindriyaṃ, bhikkhave, bodhipakkhiyo dhammo, taṃ bodhāya saṃvattati; vīriyindriyaṃ bodhipakkhiyo dhammo, taṃ bodhāya saṃvattati; satindriyaṃ bodhipakkhiyo dhammo, taṃ bodhāya saṃvattati; samādhindriyaṃ bodhipakkhiyo dhammo, taṃ bodhāya saṃvattati; paññindriyaṃ bodhipakkhiyo dhammo, taṃ bodhāya saṃvattati.

And what are the qualities that lead to awakening? The faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom are qualities that lead to awakening, in that they lead to becoming awakened.

seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, ye keci tiracchānagatā pāṇā, sīho migarājā tesaṃ aggamakkhāyati, yadidaṃ — thāmena javena sūrena; evameva kho, bhikkhave, ye keci bodhipakkhiyā dhammā, paññindriyaṃ tesaṃ aggamakkhāyati, yadidaṃ bodhāyā”ti.

The lion, king of beasts, is said to be the best of animals in terms of strength, speed, and courage. In the same way, the faculty of wisdom is said to be the best of the qualities that lead to awakening in terms of becoming awakened.”


There is a popular belief that the expression bodhipakkhiyā dhammā refers to a set of 37 dhammas (probably a product of commentarial tradition) which are indeed found together at DN 16, 28, 29, MN 77, 103, 104, 118, 149, AN 7.71, AN 8.19, AN 10.90, SN 22.81, SN 22.101, and SN 45.89, although without being called by this appellation: the four satipaṭṭhānas, the four sammappadhānas, the four iddhipādas, the five spiritual indriyas, the five balas, the seven bojjhaṅgas and the ariya aṭṭh·aṅgika magga.


Bodhi leaf





bodhisatta: [bodhi+satta]

The term is used by the Buddha in the suttas to refer to himself at a time prior to his awakening (bodhi). The word may have been used originally only in connection with the last life of the Buddha himself, in such contexts as “in the days before my Enlightenment, when as yet I was only a Bodhisatta”, although some suttas use the term to refer to any person destined to become a Buddha. However, as we will see, there are reasonable suspiscions that the latter, despite their inclusion in the Pali Canon, are late productions, reflecting major trends in the historical evolution of Buddhism in the centuries after the Buddha's death.

♦ The first type of sutta in which the term bodhisatta occurs is when the Buddha tells the story of his various trials and errors before his awakening: MN 26, 36, 85, 100.


e.g. MN 85

“mayhampi kho, rājakumāra, pubbeva sambodhā anabhisambuddhassa bodhisattasseva sato etadahosi — ‘na kho sukhena sukhaṃ adhigantabbaṃ, dukkhena kho sukhaṃ adhigantabban’ti. so kho ahaṃ, rājakumāra, aparena samayena daharova samāno susukāḷakeso bhadrena yobbanena samannāgato paṭhamena vayasā akāmakānaṃ mātāpitūnaṃ assumukhānaṃ rudantānaṃ kesamassuṃ ohāretvā kāsāyāni vatthāni acchādetvā agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbajiṃ. so evaṃ pabbajito samāno kiṃkusalagavesī anuttaraṃ santivarapadaṃ pariyesamāno yena āḷāro kālāmo tenupasaṅkamiṃ; upasaṅkamitvā āḷāraṃ kālāmaṃ etadavocaṃ — ‘icchāmahaṃ, āvuso kālāma, imasmiṃ dhammavinaye brahmacariyaṃ caritun’ti.

Before my awakening, when I was still unawakened but an awakened-to-be—I thought: ‘Living in a house is cramped and dirty, but the life of one gone forth is wide open. It’s not easy for someone living at home to lead the spiritual life utterly full and pure, like a polished shell. Why don’t I shave off my hair and beard, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness?’ Some time later, while still black-haired, blessed with youth, in the prime of life— though my mother and father wished otherwise, weeping with tearful faces—I shaved off my hair and beard, dressed in ocher robes, and went forth from the lay life to homelessness. Once I had gone forth I set out to discover what is skillful, seeking the supreme state of sublime peace. I approached Āḷāra Kālāma and said to him, ‘Reverend Kālāma, I wish to live the spiritual life in this teaching and training.’


♦ In the second type of sutta where the term bodhisatta occurs, the Buddha recounts his search for the truth prior to his awakening, in terms of the Dhamma that he teaches. Thus, at SN 12.10 and 65, he recounts how he discovered paṭicca·samuppāda. At MN 128 and AN 8.64, he explains how he stablized the perception of light (obhāsa) and the vision of forms (dassana rūpānaṃ). At SN 51.11 and 21, he recounts how he searched the way to develop iddhipādas. At AN 9.41, he explains how he searched successively higher levels of liberation (vimutti) through jhānas.


e.g. MN 128

ahampi sudaṃ, anuruddhā, pubbeva sambodhā anabhisambuddho bodhisattova samāno obhāsañceva sañjānāmi dassanañca rūpānaṃ. so kho pana me obhāso nacirasseva antaradhāyati dassanañca rūpānaṃ. tassa mayhaṃ, anuruddhā, etadahosi — ‘ko nu kho hetu ko paccayo yena me obhāso antaradhāyati dassanañca rūpānan’ti?

Before my awakening, when I was still unawakened but an awakened-to-be, I too perceived both light and vision of forms. But before long my light and vision of forms vanished. It occurred to me: ‘What’s the cause, what’s the reason why my light and vision of forms vanish?’


Then there is a series of suttas where he searched the gratification (assāda), the danger or drawback (ādīnava) and the escape or emancipation (nissaraṇa) of various phenomena: kāma (MN 14), the four material dhātus (SN 14.31), the five khandhas (SN 22.26), the six senses (SN 35.13) and their respective objects (SN 35.14), vedanā specifically (SN 36.24), the world (loka) in general (AN 3.104).


e.g. AN 3.104

“pubbeva me, bhikkhave, sambodhā anabhisambuddhassa bodhisattasseva sato etadahosi — ‘ko nu kho loke assādo, ko ādīnavo, kiṃ nissaraṇan’ti? tassa mayhaṃ, bhikkhave, etadahosi — ‘yaṃ kho lokaṃ paṭicca uppajjati sukhaṃ somanassaṃ, ayaṃ loke assādo. yaṃ loko anicco dukkho vipariṇāmadhammo, ayaṃ loke ādīnavo. yo loke chandarāgavinayo chandarāgappahānaṃ, idaṃ loke nissaraṇan’ti.

“Bhikkhus, before my awakening, when I was still unawakened but an awakened-to-be, I thought: ‘What’s the gratification in the world? What’s the drawback? What’s the escape?’ Then it occurred to me: ‘The pleasure and happiness that arise from the world: this is its gratification. That the world is impermanent, suffering, and perishable: this is its drawback. Removing and giving up desire and greed for the world: this is its escape.’


♦ There is a third type of suttas where the Buddha recounts his reflections or practices prior to his awakening.


e.g. MN 4

“mayhampi kho, brāhmaṇa, pubbeva sambodhā anabhisambuddhassa bodhisattasseva sato etadahosi — ‘durabhisambhavāni hi kho araññavanapatthāni pantāni senāsanāni, dukkaraṃ pavivekaṃ, durabhiramaṃ ekatte, haranti maññe mano vanāni samādhiṃ alabhamānassa bhikkhuno’ti.

Before my awakening, when I was still unawakened but an awakened-to-be, I too thought, ‘Remote lodgings in the wilderness and the forest are challenging. It’s hard to maintain seclusion, and hard to find joy in it. Staying alone, the forests seem to rob the mind of a bhikkhu who isn’t immersed in samādhi.’


e.g. MN 19

“pubbeva me, bhikkhave, sambodhā anabhisambuddhassa bodhisattasseva sato etadahosi — ‘yaṃnūnāhaṃ dvidhā katvā dvidhā katvā vitakke vihareyyan’ti. so kho ahaṃ, bhikkhave, yo cāyaṃ kāmavitakko yo ca byāpādavitakko yo ca vihiṃsāvitakko — imaṃ ekaṃ bhāgamakāsiṃ; yo cāyaṃ nekkhammavitakko yo ca abyāpādavitakko yo ca avihiṃsāvitakko — imaṃ dutiyaṃ bhāgamakāsiṃ.

“Bhikkhus, before my awakening, when I was still unawakened but an awakened-to-be, I thought: ‘Why don’t I meditate by continually dividing my thoughts into two classes?’ So I assigned sensual, malicious, and cruel thoughts to one class. And I assigned thoughts of renunciation, good will, and harmlessness to the second class.


At SN 54.8, the Buddha mentions his practice of ānāpānassati before his awakening; at AN 5.68, he mentions his practice of iddhipādas. At SN 35.100 (or 117) he recounts noticing 'My mind might often stray towards the five kinds of sensual stimulation that I formerly experienced' (yeme pañca kāmaguṇā cetaso samphuṭṭhapubbā atītā niruddhā vipariṇatā, tatra me cittaṃ bahulaṃ gacchamānaṃ gaccheyya paccuppannesu vā appaṃ vā anāgatesu).

At AN 5.196, the Buddha recalls five dreams that he had before his awakening.

In all the above instances, which make up the vast majority of the suttas where the expression bodhisatta occurs, the reference is made to the Buddha in his last existence, before his awakening, and these suttas may be considered genuine or of early origin. In contrast, there is also a class of suttas that develop the mythology of the Buddhas, and where stories are told about what happened to a previous incarnation of the Buddha or of another, earlier Buddha, with mentions of worldwide supernatural events. As we will see, the latter may be considered less genuine and of later origin.

Indeed, we know that historically, there has been a shift in the Buddhist litterature, reflected in the Kathāvatthu. N. Dutt observes, in 'Buddhist Sects in India' (p221) that during the period of 'early or pure hinayāna Buddhism (circa 450 to 350 B.C.) (...) the account of the Life of Buddha usually commenced from the time of Prince Siddhartha's retirement to his attainment of Bodhi with occasional references to his previous existences, as in the Mahāgovinda-sutta or Mahāsudassana-sutta. The conception of a Bodhisattva performing paramis was hazy, if not unknown'.

N. Dutt (p248) contrasts this with the tendencies that appeared during the period of 'mixed hinayāna Buddhism (circa 350 to 100 B.C.)' during which 'a greater interest was created for the laity by popularizing Buddhism through the Jātakas and Avadānas. (...) Much stress was laid on the composition of the Jātakas and Avadānas, and great religious merit was attached to reading, writing, painting, and carving them. This caught the fancy of the laity as a means of earning religious merit, and resulted in many sculptures, some of which only are preserved at Sanchi and Bharhut. The credit for popularizing the religion through the Jātakas and Avadānas goes, at the first instance, to the Sarvāstivādins, and, later, to the Theravādins. (...) The account of the Life of Buddha commenced not from the time of Sidhārtha's retirement but from the first resolution (pranidhāna) made by Sumedha Brāhmana, and the prophecy (veyyākarana) made by Dipankara Buddha'.

It should be noted that the Mahasanghikas were also prolific producers of Jātakas.

The fondness of Buddhist laity for Jātakas and other such mythologic stories has survived to this day in Asian countries and is still directly observable.

♦ The first such sutta presenting mythological content is DN 14, Mahāpadāna Sutta: The Great Legend. This refers to the last seven Buddhas, going back ‘ninety-one aeons’ in time. The life of the Buddha Vipassi at that remote period is told in terms similar to early versions of the life of Gotama. All Buddhas go through the same experiences in their last earthly life.

Govind Chandra Pande, in his book 'Studies in the Origins of Buddhism' (p94), notes about this sutta that 'a change of atmosphere is unmistakable' compared to DN 13, which he classifies as 'early'. 'The lives of the Buddha follow an unvarying archetype; all their course is but the manifestation of eternal norms (Dhammatā). Already the list of previous Buddhas has enlarged to six; and the thirty-two marks of greatness are mentioned in detail. The title itself of the sutta (Mahāpadāna) suggests its lateness. The 'apadānas' became a popular genre later on, but the very word, in this meaning, is not early'.

Pande explains further, on p29: 'The most far reaching theological trend [after 350 B.C.] was the apotheosis of Buddha. The idea of a being incomparably superior to all creatures, including gods, and from time to time incarnating, actually or apparently, according to a fixed norm (Dhammatā) solely out of compassion, is without a previous parallel. It is quite foreign to the earliest texts and must have developped gradually. (...) The mention of previous Buddhas (like Sikhī), of future Buddhas (like Metteyya), of the "bodhisatta", of the Pacceka-Buddha, of the "birth miracles" and the narrative of the life of the Buddha as governed by "Dhammatā" - these, then, emerge as late characteristics. (...) There was also the growth of the physiognomical dogma of the thirty-two "Mahāpurisalakkhaṇas" [marks of a great man] (these are declared a Brahmanic doctrine in DN 3)'.

So we may conclude with sufficient confidence that DN 14 was composed at a late period, most probably at least a century after the Buddha's death, and dismiss it in the context of this Glossary.

♦ The second sutta presenting mythological content is MN 123: Acchariya-abbhūta Sutta: Wonderful and Marvellous. At a gathering of bhikkhus the venerable Ānanda recounts the wonderful and marvellous events that preceded and attended the birth of the Buddha.

Pande notes, in 'Studies in the Origins of Buddhism' (p140): 'Sutta 123 describes a large number of "abbhuta-dhammas" which must accompany the ante-natal preparations and the final birth of a "Bodhisatta". The sutta obviously belongs to a period when the Buddha was a full fledged god, or rather, more, and his birth a miraculous descent of the divine.'

As for DN 14, we may conclude with sufficient confidence that this sutta was composed at a late period and should be dismissed in the context of this Glossary.

♦ AN 4.127 and AN 8.70 share a lot of textual material with DN 14 and MN 123 and may equally be dismissed on the ground that they belong to the same period. Finally, Ud 5.2 is classified by Chande (p74) as late, since it 'presupposes a well developped Buddhology' (sign of lateness). Indeed, Ud 5.2 'describes how the mothers of the Bodhisattas must be shortlived'.

For further analysis, see Bhikkhu Anālayo's 'The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal'.


Bodhi leaf





bojjhaṅga: [bodhi+aṅga]

factor of awakening, of enlightenment. There are seven of them, and they are also often called sambojjhaṅgas. These seven are:

1. sati
2. dhamma·vicaya
3. vīriya
4. pīti
5. passaddhi
6. samādhi
7. upekkhā

The term bojjhaṅga is explained in the Bojjhaṅga Saṃyutta, which is rich in similes and explanations about the term:


SN 46.5 & SN 46.21

atha kho aññataro bhikkhu yena bhagavā tenupasaṅkami ... pe ... so bhikkhu bhagavantaṃ etadavoca: “‘bojjhaṅgā, bojjhaṅgā’ti, bhante, vuccanti. kittāvatā nu kho, bhante, ‘bojjhaṅgā’ti vuccantī”ti?

Then a certain bhikkhu went up to the Buddha … and said to him: “Sir, they speak of the ‘awakening factors’. How are the awakening factors defined?”

“bodhāya saṃvattantīti kho, bhikkhu, tasmā ‘bojjhaṅgā’ti vuccanti.”

“They lead to awakening, bhikkhu, therefore they’re called 'awakening factors'.”


Since the bojjhaṅgas lead to bodha/i, it could be said that the stated purpose in their name is to emulate the Buddha by also aiming for bodhi.

♦ The bojjhaṅgas are always enumerated in the same order, because then each is said to lead to the next:


MN 118

ānāpānassati, bhikkhave, bhāvitā bahulīkatā cattāro satipaṭṭhāne paripūreti. cattāro satipaṭṭhānā bhāvitā bahulīkatā satta bojjhaṅge paripūrenti. satta bojjhaṅgā bhāvitā bahulīkatā vijjāvimuttiṃ paripūrenti.

. Mindfulness of breathing, when developed and cultivated, fulfills the four kinds of mindfulness meditation. The four kinds of mindfulness meditation, when developed and cultivated, fulfill the seven awakening factors. And the seven awakening factors, when developed and cultivated, fulfill knowledge and freedom.

...

...

“kathaṃ bhāvitā ca, bhikkhave, cattāro satipaṭṭhānā kathaṃ bahulīkatā satta bojjhaṅge paripūrenti? yasmiṃ samaye, bhikkhave, bhikkhu kāye kāyānupassī viharati... vedanāsu ... citte... dhammesu dhammānupassī ātāpī sampajāno satimā vineyya loke abhijjhādomanassaṃ, upaṭṭhitāssa tasmiṃ samaye sati hoti asammuṭṭhā. yasmiṃ samaye, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno upaṭṭhitā sati hoti asammuṭṭhā, satisambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno āraddho hoti. satisambojjhaṅgaṃ tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu bhāveti, satisambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno bhāvanāpāripūriṃ gacchati.

And how are the four kinds of mindfulness meditation developed and cultivated so as to fulfill the seven awakening factors? Whenever a bhikkhu meditates by observing an aspect of the body… feelings … mind … principles, at that time their mindfulness is established and lucid. At such a time, a bhikkhu has activated the awakening factor of mindfulness; they develop it and perfect it.

“so tathāsato viharanto taṃ dhammaṃ paññāya pavicinati pavicayati parivīmaṃsaṃ āpajjati. yasmiṃ samaye, bhikkhave, bhikkhu tathāsato viharanto taṃ dhammaṃ paññāya pavicinati pavicayati parivīmaṃsaṃ āpajjati, dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno āraddho hoti, dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgaṃ tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu bhāveti, dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno bhāvanāpāripūriṃ gacchati.

As they live mindfully in this way they investigate, explore, and inquire into that principle with wisdom. When they live mindfully in this way, investigate, explore, and inquire into that principle with wisdom, a bhikkhu has activated the awakening factor of investigation of principles; they develop the awakening factor of investigation of principles, they perfect the awakening factor of investigation of principles.

“tassa taṃ dhammaṃ paññāya pavicinato pavicayato parivīmaṃsaṃ āpajjato āraddhaṃ hoti vīriyaṃ asallīnaṃ. yasmiṃ samaye, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno taṃ dhammaṃ paññāya pavicinato pavicayato parivīmaṃsaṃ āpajjato āraddhaṃ hoti vīriyaṃ asallīnaṃ, vīriyasambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno āraddho hoti, vīriyasambojjhaṅgaṃ tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu bhāveti, vīriyasambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno bhāvanāpāripūriṃ gacchati.

As they investigate principles with wisdom in this way their energy is roused up and unflagging. At such a time, a bhikkhu has activated the awakening factor of energy; they develop it and perfect it.

“āraddhavīriyassa uppajjati pīti nirāmisā. yasmiṃ samaye, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno āraddhavīriyassa uppajjati pīti nirāmisā, pītisambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno āraddho hoti, pītisambojjhaṅgaṃ tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu bhāveti, pītisambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno bhāvanāpāripūriṃ gacchati.

When they’re energetic, spiritual rapture arises. At such a time, a bhikkhu has activated the awakening factor of rapture; they develop it and perfect it.

“pītimanassa kāyopi passambhati, cittampi passambhati. yasmiṃ samaye, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno pītimanassa kāyopi passambhati, cittampi passambhati, passaddhisambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno āraddho hoti, passaddhisambojjhaṅgaṃ tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu bhāveti, passaddhisambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno bhāvanāpāripūriṃ gacchati.

When the mind is full of rapture, the body and mind become tranquil. At such a time, a bhikkhu has activated the awakening factor of tranquility; they develop it and perfect it.

“passaddhakāyassa sukhino cittaṃ samādhiyati. yasmiṃ samaye, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno passaddhakāyassa sukhino cittaṃ samādhiyati, samādhisambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno āraddho hoti, samādhisambojjhaṅgaṃ tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu bhāveti, samādhisambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno bhāvanāpāripūriṃ gacchati.

When the body is tranquil and they feel bliss, the mind becomes immersed in concentration. At such a time, a bhikkhu has activated the awakening factor of concentration; they develop it and perfect it.

“so tathāsamāhitaṃ cittaṃ sādhukaṃ ajjhupekkhitā hoti. yasmiṃ samaye, bhikkhave, bhikkhu tathāsamāhitaṃ cittaṃ sādhukaṃ ajjhupekkhitā hoti, upekkhāsambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno āraddho hoti, upekkhāsambojjhaṅgaṃ tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhu bhāveti, upekkhāsambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye bhikkhuno bhāvanāpāripūriṃ gacchati.

They closely watch over that mind immersed in samādhi. At such a time, a bhikkhu has activated the awakening factor of equanimity; they develop it and perfect it.


♦ The bojjhaṅgas are once considered to be numbered as fourteen:


SN 46.52

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, pariyāyo, yaṃ pariyāyaṃ āgamma satta bojjhaṅgā catuddasa honti? yadapi, bhikkhave, ajjhattaṃ dhammesu sati tadapi satisambojjhaṅgo, yadapi bahiddhā dhammesu sati tadapi satisambojjhaṅgo. ‘satisambojjhaṅgo’ti iti hidaṃ uddesaṃ gacchati. tadamināpetaṃ pariyāyena dvayaṃ hoti.

And what is the way in which the seven awakening factors become fourteen? Mindfulness of internal things is the awakening factor of mindfulness; and mindfulness of external things is also the awakening factor of mindfulness. That’s how what is concisely referred to as ‘the awakening factor of mindfulness’ becomes twofold.

“yadapi, bhikkhave, ajjhattaṃ dhammesu paññāya pavicinati pavicarati parivīmaṃsamāpajjati tadapi dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgo, yadapi bahiddhā dhammesu paññāya pavicinati pavicarati parivīmaṃsamāpajjati tadapi dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgo. ‘dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgo’ti iti hidaṃ uddesaṃ gacchati. tadamināpetaṃ pariyāyena dvayaṃ hoti.

Investigating, exploring, and inquiring into internal things with wisdom is the awakening factor of investigation of principles; and investigating, exploring, and inquiring into external things with wisdom is also the awakening factor of investigation of principles. That’s how what is concisely referred to as ‘the awakening factor of investigation of principles’ becomes twofold.

“yadapi, bhikkhave, kāyikaṃ vīriyaṃ tadapi vīriyasambojjhaṅgo, yadapi cetasikaṃ vīriyaṃ tadapi vīriyasambojjhaṅgo. ‘vīriyasambojjhaṅgo’ti iti hidaṃ uddesaṃ gacchati. tadamināpetaṃ pariyāyena dvayaṃ hoti.

Physical energy is the awakening factor of energy; and mental energy is also the awakening factor of energy. That’s how what is concisely referred to as ‘the awakening factor of energy’ becomes twofold.

“yadapi, bhikkhave, savitakkasavicārā pīti tadapi pītisambojjhaṅgo, yadapi avitakkāvicārā pīti tadapi pītisambojjhaṅgo. ‘pītisambojjhaṅgo’ti iti hidaṃ uddesaṃ gacchati. tadamināpetaṃ pariyāyena dvayaṃ hoti.

Rapture while placing the mind and keeping it connected is the awakening factor of rapture; and rapture without placing the mind and keeping it connected is also the awakening factor of rapture. In this way what is concisely referred to as ‘the awakening factor of rapture’ becomes twofold.

“yadapi, bhikkhave, kāyappassaddhi tadapi passaddhisambojjhaṅgo, yadapi cittappassaddhi tadapi passaddhisambojjhaṅgo. ‘passaddhisambojjhaṅgo’ti iti hidaṃ uddesaṃ gacchati. tadamināpetaṃ pariyāyena dvayaṃ hoti.

Physical tranquility is the awakening factor of tranquility; and mental tranquility is also the awakening factor of tranquility. In this way what is concisely referred to as ‘the awakening factor of tranquility’ becomes twofold.

“yadapi, bhikkhave, savitakko savicāro samādhi tadapi samādhisambojjhaṅgo, yadapi avitakkāvicāro samādhi tadapi samādhisambojjhaṅgo. ‘samādhisambojjhaṅgo’ti iti hidaṃ uddesaṃ gacchati. tadamināpetaṃ pariyāyena dvayaṃ hoti.

Concentration with initial and sustained thoughts is the awakening factor of concentration; and concentration without initial and sustained thoughts is also the awakening factor of concentration. In this way what is concisely referred to as ‘the awakening factor of concentration’ becomes twofold.

“yadapi, bhikkhave, ajjhattaṃ dhammesu upekkhā tadapi upekkhāsambojjhaṅgo, yadapi bahiddhā dhammesu upekkhā tadapi upekkhāsambojjhaṅgo. ‘upekkhāsambojjhaṅgo’ti iti hidaṃ uddesaṃ gacchati. tadamināpetaṃ pariyāyena dvayaṃ hoti.

Equanimity for internal things is the awakening factor of equanimity; and equanimity for external things is also the awakening factor of equanimity. In this way what is concisely referred to as ‘the awakening factor of equanimity’ becomes twofold.


♦ In the Aggi Sutta, it is explained that when the mind is sluggish (līnaṃ), it is the wrong time to cultivate passaddhi, samādhi and upekkhā, but it's the right time to cultivate dhamma·vicaya, vīriya and pīti. In contrast, when the mind is restless (uddhattaṃ), it is the wrong time to cultivate dhamma·vicaya, vīriya and pīti, but it's the right time to cultivate passaddhi, samādhi and upekkhā:


SN 46.53

“yasmiṃ, bhikkhave, samaye līnaṃ cittaṃ hoti, akālo tasmiṃ samaye passaddhisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, akālo samādhisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, akālo upekkhāsambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya. taṃ kissa hetu? līnaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ taṃ etehi dhammehi dussamuṭṭhāpayaṃ hoti.

When the mind is sluggish, it’s the wrong time to develop the awakening factors of tranquility, concentration, and equanimity. Why is that? Because it’s hard to stimulate a sluggish mind with these things.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, puriso parittaṃ aggiṃ ujjāletukāmo assa. so tattha allāni ceva tiṇāni pakkhipeyya, allāni ca gomayāni pakkhipeyya, allāni ca kaṭṭhāni pakkhipeyya, udakavātañca dadeyya, paṃsukena ca okireyya; bhabbo nu kho so puriso parittaṃ aggiṃ ujjālitun”ti? “no hetaṃ, bhante”. “evameva kho, bhikkhave, yasmiṃ samaye līnaṃ cittaṃ hoti, akālo tasmiṃ samaye passaddhisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, akālo samādhisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, akālo upekkhāsambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya. taṃ kissa hetu? līnaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ taṃ etehi dhammehi dussamuṭṭhāpayaṃ hoti.

Suppose someone wanted to make a small fire flare up. If they toss wet grass, cow-dung, and timber on it, spray it with water, and scatter dirt on it, could they make it flare up?” “No, sir.” “In the same way, when the mind is sluggish, it’s the wrong time to develop the awakening factors of tranquility, concentration, and equanimity. Why is that? Because it’s hard to stimulate a sluggish mind with these things.

“yasmiñca kho, bhikkhave, samaye līnaṃ cittaṃ hoti, kālo tasmiṃ samaye dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, kālo vīriyasambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, kālo pītisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya. taṃ kissa hetu? līnaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ taṃ etehi dhammehi susamuṭṭhāpayaṃ hoti.

When the mind is sluggish, it’s the right time to develop the awakening factors of investigation of principles, energy, and rapture. Why is that? Because it’s easy to stimulate a sluggish mind with these things.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, puriso parittaṃ aggiṃ ujjāletukāmo assa. so tattha sukkhāni ceva tiṇāni pakkhipeyya, sukkhāni gomayāni pakkhipeyya, sukkhāni kaṭṭhāni pakkhipeyya, mukhavātañca dadeyya, na ca paṃsukena okireyya; bhabbo nu kho so puriso parittaṃ aggiṃ ujjālitun”ti? “evaṃ, bhante”. “evameva kho, bhikkhave, yasmiṃ samaye līnaṃ cittaṃ hoti, kālo tasmiṃ samaye dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, kālo vīriyasambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, kālo pītisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya. taṃ kissa hetu? līnaṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ taṃ etehi dhammehi susamuṭṭhāpayaṃ hoti.

Suppose someone wanted to make a small fire flare up. If they toss dry grass, cow-dung, and timber on it, blow on it, and don’t scatter dirt on it, could they make it flare up?” “Yes, sir.” “In the same way, when the mind is sluggish, it’s the right time to develop the awakening factors of investigation of principles, energy, and rapture. Why is that? Because it’s easy to stimulate a sluggish mind with these things.

“yasmiṃ, bhikkhave, samaye uddhattaṃ cittaṃ hoti, akālo tasmiṃ samaye dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, akālo vīriyasambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, akālo pītisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya. taṃ kissa hetu? uddhataṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ taṃ etehi dhammehi duvūpasamayaṃ hoti.

When the mind is restless, it’s the wrong time to develop the awakening factors of investigation of principles, energy, and rapture. Why is that? Because it’s hard to settle a restless mind with these things.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, puriso mahantaṃ aggikkhandhaṃ nibbāpetukāmo assa. so tattha sukkhāni ceva tiṇāni pakkhipeyya, sukkhāni ca gomayāni pakkhipeyya, sukkhāni ca kaṭṭhāni pakkhipeyya, mukhavātañca dadeyya, na ca paṃsukena okireyya; bhabbo nu kho so puriso mahantaṃ aggikkhandhaṃ nibbāpetun”ti? “no hetaṃ, bhante”. “evameva kho, bhikkhave, yasmiṃ samaye uddhataṃ cittaṃ hoti, akālo tasmiṃ samaye dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, akālo vīriyasambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, akālo pītisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya. taṃ kissa hetu? uddhataṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ taṃ etehi dhammehi duvūpasamayaṃ hoti.

Suppose someone wanted to extinguish a bonfire. If they toss dry grass, cow-dung, and timber on it, blow on it, and don’t scatter dirt on it, could they extinguish it?” “No, sir.” “In the same way, when the mind is restless, it’s the wrong time to develop the awakening factors of investigation of principles, energy, and rapture. Why is that? Because it’s hard to settle a restless mind with these things.

“yasmiñca kho, bhikkhave, samaye uddhataṃ cittaṃ hoti, kālo tasmiṃ samaye passaddhisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, kālo samādhisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, kālo upekkhāsambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya. taṃ kissa hetu? uddhataṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ taṃ etehi dhammehi suvūpasamayaṃ hoti.

When the mind is restless, it’s the right time to develop the awakening factors of tranquility, concentration, and equanimity. Why is that? Because it’s easy to settle a restless mind with these things.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, puriso mahantaṃ aggikkhandhaṃ nibbāpetukāmo assa. so tattha allāni ceva tiṇāni pakkhipeyya, allāni ca gomayāni pakkhipeyya, allāni ca kaṭṭhāni pakkhipeyya, udakavātañca dadeyya, paṃsukena ca okireyya; bhabbo nu kho so puriso mahantaṃ aggikkhandhaṃ nibbāpetun”ti? “evaṃ, bhante”. “evameva kho, bhikkhave, yasmiṃ samaye uddhataṃ cittaṃ hoti, kālo tasmiṃ samaye passaddhisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, kālo samādhisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya, kālo upekkhāsambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya. taṃ kissa hetu? uddhataṃ, bhikkhave, cittaṃ taṃ etehi dhammehi suvūpasamayaṃ hoti.

Suppose someone wanted to extinguish a bonfire. If they toss wet grass, cow-dung, and timber on it, spray it with water, and scatter dirt on it, could they extinguish it?” “Yes, sir.” “In the same way, when the mind is restless, it’s the right time to develop the awakening factors of tranquility, concentration, and equanimity. Why is that? Because it’s easy to settle a restless mind with these things.

satiñca khvāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sabbatthikaṃ vadāmī”ti.

But mindfulness is always useful, I say.”


♦ Certain things develop the bojjhaṅgas, such as good friendship (kalyāṇa·mittatā), fruitful attention (yoniso·manasi·kāra), diligence (appamāda):


SN 46.12

“sūriyassa, bhikkhave, udayato etaṃ pubbaṅgamaṃ etaṃ pubbanimittaṃ, yadidaṃ aruṇuggaṃ; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ uppādāya etaṃ pubbaṅgamaṃ etaṃ pubbanimittaṃ, yadidaṃ kalyāṇamittatā. kalyāṇamittassetaṃ, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno pāṭikaṅkhaṃ satta bojjhaṅge bhāvessati, satta bojjhaṅge bahulīkarissati.

Bhikkhus, the dawn is the forerunner and precursor of the sunrise. In the same way, for a bhikkhu good friendship is the forerunner and precursor of the arising of the seven awakening factors. A bhikkhu with good friends can expect to develop and cultivate the seven awakening factors.


SN 46.13

“sūriyassa, bhikkhave, udayato etaṃ pubbaṅgamaṃ etaṃ pubbanimittaṃ, yadidaṃ aruṇuggaṃ; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ uppādāya etaṃ pubbaṅgamaṃ etaṃ pubbanimittaṃ, yadidaṃ yonisomanasikāro. yonisomanasikārasampannassetaṃ, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno pāṭikaṅkhaṃ satta bojjhaṅge bhāvessati, satta bojjhaṅge bahulīkarissati.

Bhikkhus, the dawn is the forerunner and precursor of the sunrise. In the same way, for a bhikkhu fruitful attention is the forerunner and precursor of the arising of the seven awakening factors. A bhikkhu accomplished in fruitful attention can expect to develop and cultivate the seven awakening factors.


SN 46.31

“ye keci, bhikkhave, dhammā kusalā kusalabhāgiyā kusalapakkhikā, sabbe te appamādamūlakā appamādasamosaraṇā; appamādo tesaṃ dhammānaṃ aggamakkhāyati. appamattassetaṃ, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno pāṭikaṅkhaṃ satta bojjhaṅge bhāvessati, satta bojjhaṅge bahulīkarissati.

Bhikkhus, whatever qualities are skillful, part of the skillful, on the side of the skillful, all of them are rooted in diligence and meet at diligence, and diligence is said to be the best of them. A bhikkhu who is diligent can expect to develop and cultivate the seven awakening factors.


Listening carefully to the Dhamma also develops the bojjhaṅgas:


SN 46.38

“yasmiṃ, bhikkhave, samaye ariyasāvako aṭṭhiṃ katvā manasi katvā sabbaṃ cetaso samannāharitvā ohitasoto dhammaṃ suṇāti... satta bojjhaṅgā tasmiṃ samaye bhāvanāpāripūriṃ gacchanti.

Bhikkhus, sometimes a bhikkhu pays heed, pays attention, engages wholeheartedly, and lends an ear to the teaching. At such a time... the seven awakening factors are developed to perfection.


In the Pāṇa Sutta, the bojjhaṅgas are grounded in sīla:


SN 46.11

seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, ye keci pāṇā cattāro iriyāpathe kappenti, kālena gamanaṃ, kālena ṭhānaṃ, kālena nisajjaṃ, kālena seyyaṃ, sabbe te pathaviṃ nissāya pathaviyaṃ patiṭṭhāya evamete cattāro iriyāpathe kappenti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sīlaṃ nissāya sīle patiṭṭhāya satta bojjhaṅge bhāveti, satta bojjhaṅge bahulīkaroti.

Bhikkhus, living creatures engage in the four postures: sometimes walking, sometimes standing, sometimes sitting, sometimes lying down. They do so depending on the earth and grounded on the earth. In the same way, a bhikkhu develops and cultivates the seven awakening factors depending on and grounded on ethics.


The four satipaṭṭhānas fulfill the bojjhaṅgas (cattāro satipaṭṭhānā bhāvitā bahulīkatā satta bojjhaṅge paripūrenti, MN 118), and the ariya aṭṭh·aṅgika magga fulfills them too (ariyaṃ aṭṭhaṅgikaṃ maggaṃ bhāvayato... sattapi bojjhaṅgā bhāvanāpāripūriṃ gacchanti, MN 149).

♦ The bojjhaṅgas can be developped in correlation with other practices. For example, in the dhammānupassanā part of the satipaṭṭhānas, a section is dedicated to their observation:


DN 22

puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bhikkhu dhammesu dhammānupassī viharati sattasu bojjhaṅgesu. kathañca pana, bhikkhave, bhikkhu dhammesu dhammānupassī viharati sattasu bojjhaṅgesu?

Furthermore, a bhikkhu meditates by observing an aspect of principles with respect to the seven awakening factors. And how does a bhikkhu meditate observing an aspect of principles with respect to the seven awakening factors?

idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu santaṃ vā ajjhattaṃ satisambojjhaṅgaṃ ‘atthi me ajjhattaṃ satisambojjhaṅgo’’ti pajānāti, asantaṃ vā ajjhattaṃ satisambojjhaṅgaṃ ‘natthi me ajjhattaṃ satisambojjhaṅgo’’ti pajānāti, yathā ca anuppannassa satisambojjhaṅgassa uppādo hoti tañca pajānāti, yathā ca uppannassa satisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya pāripūrī hoti tañca pajānāti.

It’s when a bhikkhu who has the awakening factor of mindfulness in them understands: ‘I have the awakening factor of mindfulness in me.’ When they don’t have the awakening factor of mindfulness in them, they understand: ‘I don’t have the awakening factor of mindfulness in me.’ They understand how the awakening factor of mindfulness that has not arisen comes to arise; and how the awakening factor of mindfulness that has arisen becomes fulfilled by development.

etc.

etc.


♦ The bojjhaṅgas are part of a set of 37 dhammas which are often listed together (e.g. at AN 10.90, SN 22.81) and are sometimes called the bodhi·pakkhiyā dhammā in popular culture.

The bojjhaṅgas can be developped in correlation with various perceptions: the perception of a skeleton (aṭṭhika·saññā, SN 46.57), the perception of a worm-infested corpse (puḷavaka·saññā, SN 46.63), of a livid corpse (vinīlaka·saññā, SN 46.64), of a split open corpse (vicchiddaka·saññā, SN 46.65), of a bloated corpse (uddhumātaka·saññā, SN 46.66), the perception of the unattractive (asubha·saññā, SN 46.72), of death (maraṇa·saññā, SN 46.73), of loathsomeness in food (āhāre paṭikūla·saññā, SN 46.74), of distaste for the entire world (sabbaloke anabhirati·saññā, SN 46.75), of impermanence (anicca·saññā, SN 46.76), of unsatisfactoriness in what is impermanent (anicce dukkha·saññā, SN 46.77), of non-self in what is unsatisfactory (dukkhe anatta·saññā, SN 46.78), of abandoning (pahāna·saññā, SN 46.79), of dispassion (virāga·saññā, SN 46.80), of cessation (nirodha·saññā, SN 46.81).

The bojjhaṅgas can also be developped in correlation with mettā (SN 46.67), karuṇa (SN 46.68), muditā (SN 46.69), upekkhā (SN 46.70) and ānāpānassati (SN 46.71).

♦ The bojjhaṅgas, if unarisen, do not arise apart from the appearance of a Buddha (n·āññatra tathāgatassa pātubhāvā arahato sammāsambuddhassa, SN 46.9) or the Discipline of a Sublime one (n·āññatra sugata·vinaya, SN 46.10).

♦ As long as the bhikkhus keep developing the bojjhaṅgas, they will experience growth and not loss (yāvakīvañca, bhikkhave, bhikkhu satisambojjhaṅgaṃ bhāvessanti... upekkhāsambojjhaṅgaṃ bhāvessanti, vuddhiyeva, bhikkhave, bhikkhūnaṃ pāṭikaṅkhā, no parihāni, DN 16).

♦ When a person hasn't developed and cultivated the seven awakening factors, they are called ‘a witless idiot’ (duppañño eḷamūgo, SN 46.44) or 'poor' (daliddo, SN 46.46). When a person has developed and cultivated the seven awakening factors, they are called ‘wise, no idiot’ (paññavā aneḷamūgo, SN 46.45) or 'rich' (adaliddo, SN 46.47)

♦ The bojjhaṅgas constitute the power of development (bhāvanā·bala, AN 2.12), the effort for development (bhāvanā·ppadhāna, AN 4.14) and at AN 4.238 they are said to be 'neither dark nor bright action with neither dark nor bright results, which lead to the destruction of action' (kammaṃ akaṇhāsukkaṃ akaṇhāsukka·vipākaṃ kamma·kkhayāya saṃvattati).

♦ The bojjhaṅgas fulfill true knowledge and liberation (vijjā-vimutti), when they are 'based upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation, maturing in release' (viveka·nissita virāga·nissita nirodha·nissita vossagga·pariṇāmi):


MN 118

satta bojjhaṅgā bhāvitā bahulīkatā vijjāvimuttiṃ paripūrenti.

When the seven awakening factors are developed and cultivated, they fulfill true knowledge and liberation.

...

...

“kathaṃ bhāvitā ca, bhikkhave, satta bojjhaṅgā kathaṃ bahulīkatā vijjāvimuttiṃ paripūrenti? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sati-sambojjhaṅgaṃ... dhammavicaya-sambojjhaṅgaṃ... vīriya-sambojjhaṅgaṃ... pīti-sambojjhaṅgaṃ... passaddhi-sambojjhaṅgaṃ... samādhi-sambojjhaṅgaṃ... upekkhā-sambojjhaṅgaṃ bhāveti vivekanissitaṃ virāganissitaṃ nirodhanissitaṃ vossaggapariṇāmiṃ. evaṃ bhāvitā kho, bhikkhave, satta bojjhaṅgā evaṃ bahulīkatā vijjāvimuttiṃ paripūrentī”ti.

And how are the seven awakening factors developed and cultivated so as to fulfill true knowledge and liberation? It’s when a bhikkhu develops the awakening factors of mindfulness, investigation of principles, energy, rapture, tranquility, immersion, and equanimity, which are based upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation, maturing in release. That’s how the seven awakening factors, when developed and cultivated, fulfill true knowledge and liberation


At AN 10.102, it is further said that the bojjhaṅgas fulfill the three vijjās (sattime, bhikkhave, bojjhaṅgā bhāvitā bahulīkatā tisso vijjā paripūrenti). Among other states that the bojjhaṅgas lead to when they are strongly developped, there is 'utter revulsion, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and nibbāna' (ekantanibbidāya virāgāya nirodhāya upasamāya abhiññāya sambodhāya nibbānāya saṃvattantī”ti, SN 46.20). They lead to ñāṇa·dassana (so satisambojjhaṅgaṃ bhāvitena cittena yathābhūtaṃ jānāti passati. ayampi kho hetu, ayaṃ paccayo ñāṇāya dassanāya, SN 46.56). They lead to 'growth and progress' (buddhiyā aparihānāya, SN 46.37). They are 'noble and emancipating, and bring one who practices them to the complete ending of suffering' (ariyā niyyānikā nīyanti takkarassa sammā dukkhakkhayāya, SN 46.19). They are 'creators of sight, vision, and knowledge, they grow wisdom, they’re on the side of solace, and they lead to nibbāna' (cakkhukaraṇā ñāṇakaraṇā paññābuddhiyā avighātapakkhiyā nibbānasaṃvattanikā, SN 46.40).


MN 151

sace, sāriputta, bhikkhu paccavekkhamāno evaṃ jānāti: ‘abhāvitā kho me satta bojjhaṅgā’’ti, tena, sāriputta, bhikkhunā sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ bhāvanāya vāyamitabbaṃ.

If, Sariputta, while examining himself a bhikkhu knows: 'I haven't developed the seven awakening factors', then he should exert himself to develop the seven awakening factors.

sace pana, sāriputta, bhikkhu paccavekkhamāno evaṃ jānāti: ‘bhāvitā kho me satta bojjhaṅgā’’ti, tena, sāriputta, bhikkhunā teneva pītipāmojjena vihātabbaṃ ahorattānusikkhinā kusalesu dhammesu.

But if, Sariputta, while examining himself a bhikkhu knows: 'I have developed the seven awakening factors', then he should meditate with rapture and joy, training day and night in skillful qualities.


♦ At SN 46.82, the bojjhaṅgas lead to nibbāna just as the river Ganges slants, slopes, and inclines towards the east (seyyathāpi gaṅgā nadī pācīna·ninnā pācīna·poṇā pācīna·pabbhārā). At SN 46.88, the bojjhaṅgas are like a tree slanting, sloping and inclining towards the east (seyyathāpi rukkho pācīna·ninno pācīna·poṇo pācīna·pabbhāro) and that could only fall towards that direction if it were to be cut at the foot. The bojjhaṅgas are also said to be the way leading to the unconditioned (a·saṅkhata·gāmi·maggo, SN 43.10).

♦ Enumerations of the bojjhaṅgas is sometimes punctuated by four different formulas. The first one is found for example at SN 46.1: 'based upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation, maturing in release' (viveka·nissita virāga·nissita nirodha·nissita vossagga·pariṇāmi).

The second formula can be found at SN 46.87 and says: 'which has the removal of avidity as its final goal, the removal of hatred as its final goal, the removal of delusion as its final goal' (rāga·vinaya·pariyosāna dosa·vinaya·pariyosāna moha·vinaya·pariyosāna).

The third one is also found at SN 46.87 and says: 'which has the Deathless as its ground, the Deathless as its destination, the Deathless as its final goal' (amat·ogadha amata·parāyana amata·pariyosāna).

The fourth is also found at SN 46.87 and says: 'which slants towards Nibbāna, slopes towards Nibbāna, inclines towards Nibbāna' (nibbāna·ninna nibbāna·poṇa nibbāna·pabbhāra).


Bodhi leaf





brāhmaṇa: a member of the Brahman caste - also used for a man leading a pure & ascetic life, often even syn. with arahant.


Bodhi leaf





Brahmā: is the supreme divinity of ancient brahmanism, considered as the creator of the universe and worshiped by brahmins through sacrifices and rituals. The Buddha gives this appellation to the Brahmakāyika, devas living in rūpa-loka the form realm and a-rūpa-loka the formless realm, which are situated beyond the lower worlds and the lower paradises of kāma-loka, and which are also known as Brahmā-loka, the Brahmā world. Traditionally, Brahmā-loka is subdivided in various planes corresponding to various stages of mastery of the four jhānas. The life-span of the Brahmās is specified at AN 4.123. As all other beings, brahmas are subject to the round of rebirth, old age and death. Some of them are brave protectors of the Buddha's teaching, while others are still deluded and conceited. Mahābrahmā is sometimes depicted as wrongly believing he is the creator of the universe.


Bodhi leaf





brahmacariya: [brahmā+cariya] brahmic life, life of renunciation, pure life of the bhikkhus, or any disciple having undertaken complete celibacy. More generally, it is an upright life, in which morality plays a fundamental role, a life of renunciation to kāma and of practice of meditation, leading among other things to the mastery of the jhānas. It is so called because it is the only way to reach the Brahmā world.


Bodhi leaf





brahmakāyika: [brahmā+kāya+ka] those who are the company of Brahmā. It designates the three lower realms of rūpa-loka, which are associated with the first jhāna. Their higest rulers is known as Mahābrahmā, of whom it is said, in DN 1, that he believes to be the highest of all living beings, an omniscient and omnipotent creator (in that way very similar to the christian god).


Bodhi leaf





brahmavihāra: [Brahmā+vihāra]

dwelling of Brahmā.

The term brahmavihāra is used at SN 54.11 and 12 to designate ānāpānassati:


SN 54.11 & 12

“yañhi taṃ, bhikkhave, sammā vadamāno vadeyya: ariyavihāro itipi, brahmavihāro itipi, tathāgatavihāro itipi. ānāpānassatisamādhiṃ sammā vadamāno vadeyya: ariyavihāro itipi, brahmavihāro itipi, tathāgatavihāro itipi.

If anything should be rightly called ‘the meditation of a noble one’, or ‘the meditation of a Brahma’, or ‘the meditation of a realized one’, it’s concentration based on breath awareness.


The term appears in another 3 suttas where it takes the meaning of the development of mettā, karuṇa, muditā, upekkhā, and pervading the entire universe with a mind embued with these qualities. This is the sense that has become nowadays predominant, but a few things should perhaps been considered about these suttas: DN 17, MN 83 and AN 5.192.

DN 17 is classified as 'late' by Govind Chandra Pande in his book 'Studies in the Origins of Buddhism' (p106) on the following grounds: 'DN 17 is an elaboration of DN 16 V §§ 17-18. Its lateness is further manifest from the detailed and gorgeous descriptions it contains of the royal city, the 7 Jewels and the "Dhamma" palace. It also shows great exaggeration in numbers, and is not free from the miraculous... Its Jātaka-form also suggests lateness, although it differs in several important respects from the Jātaka of the same name'

MN 83 is also extremely hyperbolic and mythological in nature, which highly suggests its lateness (although Pande classified it as 'uncertain'): 'a lineage of 84,000 kings, sons of sons of King Makhādeva, shaved off their hair and beard, dressed in ocher robes, and went forth from the lay life to homelessness'.

AN 5.192 also has late features, although less extreme than the two previous cases: it is a debate with a brahmin as to whether respect should be paid to old brahmins, which reflects the tensions between some schools of Buddhism and Hinduism that arose in the centuries after the Buddha's demise, culminating in Buddhism being absorbed into Hinduism and essentially disappearing from the Indian subcontinent even before the Muslim invasion, as attested by Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsiang in the 7th century CE (who noted while visiting present-day northern Pakistan that the monasteries there were 'ruined and desolate' and that the number of monks had dwindled from 18,000 to only very few), and by the Hindu Kadri Manjunath Temple in Mangalore, whose main image is of Avalokitesvara, and about which historian M. Govinda Pai has shown that it was originally a Buddhist temple, which means, according to Ven. S. Dhammika, that 'it was not ‘turned into’ a Hindu temple, it simply morphed into one as Buddhism itself morphed into Hinduism.'

Moreover, the vast majority of texts that describe the development of mettā, karuṇa, muditā and upekkhā do not use the terminology 'brahmavihāra' (see for example AN 3.66).

Thus, there seems to be reasonable ground to believe that the use of the term to designate these four practices is a late phenomenon.


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Buddha: awakened, the awakened one. It is the first of the tiratana and the tisaraṇa.


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Buddhānussati: [buddha+anussati]

recollection of the Buddha.

Buddhānussati is defined by the Buddha, for example at AN 6.10:

itipi so Bhagavā

surely, he is a Bhagavā,
arahaṃ sammā·sambuddho,

an arahant, rightly and fully awakened,

vijjā·caraṇa·sampanno,

accomplished in vijjā and [good] conduct,

sugato, loka·vidū,

faring well, knowing the world,

anuttaro purisa·damma·sārathi,

the unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed,

satthā deva·manussānaṃ,

teacher of devas and humans,

Buddho Bhagavā ti.

a Buddha, a Bhagavā.



In the Nagaropama Sutta, there is a simile explaining that when the conviction (saddhā) of a disciple is meaningfully expressed with this formula, they practice what is advantageous (kusala) and abandon what is disadvantageous (akusala):


AN 7.67

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, rañño paccantime nagare esikā hoti gambhīranemā sunikhātā acalā asampavedhī abbhantarānaṃ guttiyā bāhirānaṃ paṭighātāya. evamevaṃ kho, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako saddho hoti, saddahati tathāgatassa bodhiṃ ‘itipi so... buddho bhagavā’ti. saddhesiko, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako akusalaṃ pajahati, kusalaṃ bhāveti; sāvajjaṃ pajahati, anavajjaṃ bhāveti; suddhaṃ attānaṃ pariharati.

Just as a king’s frontier citadel has a pillar with deep foundations, firmly embedded, imperturbable and unshakable, to defend those within and repel those outside, in the same way a noble disciple has faith in the Realized One’s awakening: ‘That Blessed One... awakened, blessed.’ A noble disciple with faith as their pillar gives up the unskillful and develops the skillful, they give up the blameworthy and develop the blameless, and they keep themselves pure.


Buddhānussati leads to Nibbāna:


AN 1.296

“ekadhammo, bhikkhave, bhāvito bahulīkato ekantanibbidāya virāgāya nirodhāya upasamāya abhiññāya sambodhāya nibbānāya saṃvattati. katamo ekadhammo? buddhānussati.

“One thing, mendicants, when developed and cultivated, leads solely to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. What one thing? Recollection of the Buddha.


Buddhānussati contributes to confirmed confidence in the Buddha (Buddhe aveccappasāda), one of the four factors for stream-entry (sot·āpattiy·aṅga):


SN 12.41

“katamehi catūhi sotāpattiyaṅgehi samannāgato hoti? idha, gahapati, ariyasāvako buddhe aveccappasādena samannāgato hoti: ‘itipi so bhagavā arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno sugato lokavidū anuttaro purisadammasārathi satthā devamanussānaṃ buddho bhagavā’”ti.

What are the four factors of stream-entry that they have? It’s when a noble disciple has experiential confidence in the Buddha: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’


So in the Nivesaka Sutta, the Buddha tells Ananda that he should encourage the practice of Buddhānussati to the point where it becomes Buddhe aveccappasāda:


AN 3.76

“ye, ānanda, anukampeyyātha ye ca sotabbaṃ maññeyyuṃ mittā vā amaccā vā ñātī vā sālohitā vā te vo, ānanda, tīsu ṭhānesu samādapetabbā nivesetabbā patiṭṭhāpetabbā. katamesu tīsu? buddhe aveccappasāde samādapetabbā nivesetabbā patiṭṭhāpetabbā: ‘itipi so bhagavā arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno sugato lokavidū anuttaro purisadammasārathi; satthā devamanussānaṃ, buddho bhagavā’ti,

“Ānanda, those who you have sympathy for, and those worth listening to—friends and colleagues, relatives and family—should be encouraged, supported, and established in three things. What three? Experiential confidence in the Buddha: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’

“siyā, ānanda, catunnaṃ mahābhūtānaṃ aññathattaṃ: pathavīdhātuyā āpodhātuyā tejodhātuyā vāyodhātuyā, na tveva buddhe aveccappasādena samannāgatassa ariyasāvakassa siyā aññathattaṃ tatridaṃ aññathattaṃ. so vatānanda, buddhe aveccappasādena samannāgato ariyasāvako nirayaṃ vā tiracchānayoniṃ vā pettivisayaṃ vā upapajjissatīti netaṃ ṭhānaṃ vijjati.

There might be change in the four primary elements— earth, water, air, and fire—but a noble disciple with experiential confidence in the Buddha would never change. In this context, ‘change’ means that such a noble disciple will be reborn in hell, the animal realm, or the ghost realm: this is not possible.


Buddhānussati cleanses the mind, and fosters the appearence of joy (pāmojja, which is often described as leading to the first jhana), in the Uposatha Sutta:


AN 3.71

tassa tathāgataṃ anussarato cittaṃ pasīdati, pāmojjaṃ uppajjati. ye cittassa upakkilesā te pahīyanti, seyyathāpi, visākhe, upakkiliṭṭhassa sīsassa upakkamena pariyodapanā hoti. kathañca, visākhe, upakkiliṭṭhassa cittassa upakkamena pariyodapanā hoti? idha, visākhe, ariyasāvako tathāgataṃ anussarati: ‘itipi so bhagavā... buddho bhagavā’ti. tassa tathāgataṃ anussarato cittaṃ pasīdati, pāmojjaṃ uppajjati, ye cittassa upakkilesā te pahīyanti.

As they recollect the Realized One, their mind becomes clear, joy arises, and mental corruptions are given up. It’s just like cleaning a dirty head by applying effort. And how is a dirty head cleaned by applying effort? With cleansing paste, clay, and water, and by applying the appropriate effort. In the same way, a corrupt mind is cleaned by applying effort. And how is a corrupt mind cleaned by applying effort? It’s when a noble disciple recollects the Realized One: ‘That Blessed One... awakened, blessed.’ As they recollect the Realized One, their mind becomes clear, joy arises, and mental corruptions are given up.


Other good results of practicing Buddhānussati are mentioned elsewhere:


AN 6.26

yasmiṃ, bhikkhave, samaye ariyasāvako tathāgataṃ anussarati, nevassa tasmiṃ samaye rāgapariyuṭṭhitaṃ cittaṃ hoti, na dosapariyuṭṭhitaṃ cittaṃ hoti, na mohapariyuṭṭhitaṃ cittaṃ hoti; ujugatamevassa tasmiṃ samaye cittaṃ hoti, nikkhantaṃ muttaṃ vuṭṭhitaṃ gedhamhā. ‘gedho’ti kho, āvuso, pañcannetaṃ kāmaguṇānaṃ adhivacanaṃ. sa kho so, āvuso, ariyasāvako sabbaso ākāsasamena cetasā viharati vipulena mahaggatena appamāṇena averena abyāpajjena. idampi kho, āvuso, ārammaṇaṃ karitvā evamidhekacce sattā visuddhidhammā bhavanti.

When a noble disciple recollects the Realized One their mind is not full of greed, hate, and delusion. At that time their mind is unswerving. They’ve left behind greed; they’re free of it and have risen above it. ‘Greed’ is a term for the five kinds of sensual stimulation. That noble disciple meditates with a heart just like space, abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will. Relying on this, some sentient beings have the factors for purity.


Buddhānussati leads to concentration (samādhi):


AN 11.11

yasmiṃ, mahānāma, samaye ariyasāvako tathāgataṃ anussarati, nevassa tasmiṃ samaye rāgapariyuṭṭhitaṃ cittaṃ hoti, na dosapariyuṭṭhitaṃ cittaṃ hoti, na mohapariyuṭṭhitaṃ cittaṃ hoti; ujugatamevassa tasmiṃ samaye cittaṃ hoti tathāgataṃ ārabbha. ujugatacitto kho pana, mahānāma, ariyasāvako labhati atthavedaṃ, labhati dhammavedaṃ, labhati dhammūpasaṃhitaṃ pāmojjaṃ. pamuditassa pīti jāyati, pītimanassa kāyo passambhati, passaddhakāyo sukhaṃ vediyati, sukhino cittaṃ samādhiyati. ayaṃ vuccati, mahānāma, ariyasāvako visamagatāya pajāya samappatto viharati, sabyāpajjāya pajāya abyāpajjo viharati, dhammasotasamāpanno buddhānussatiṃ bhāveti.

When a noble disciple recollects the Realized One their mind is not full of greed, hate, and delusion. At that time their mind is unswerving, based on the Realized One. A noble disciple whose mind is unswerving finds joy in the meaning and the teaching, and finds joy connected with the teaching. When they’re joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, they feel bliss. And when they’re blissful, the mind becomes immersed in samādhi. This is called a noble disciple who lives in balance among people who are unbalanced, and lives untroubled among people who are troubled. They’ve entered the stream of the teaching and developed the recollection of the Buddha.


Buddhānussati should be practiced in all postures:


AN 11.12

imaṃ kho tvaṃ, mahānāma, buddhānussatiṃ gacchantopi bhāveyyāsi, ṭhitopi bhāveyyāsi, nisinnopi bhāveyyāsi, sayānopi bhāveyyāsi, kammantaṃ adhiṭṭhahantopi bhāveyyāsi, puttasambādhasayanaṃ ajjhāvasantopi bhāveyyāsi.

You should develop this recollection of the Buddha while walking, standing, sitting, lying down, while working, and while at home with your children.


It serves to establish mindfulness (sati):


AN 11.13

“idha tvaṃ, nandiya, tathāgataṃ anussareyyāsi: ‘itipi so... bhagavā’ti. iti kho te, nandiya, tathāgataṃ ārabbha ajjhattaṃ sati upaṭṭhāpetabbā.

Firstly, you should recollect the Realized One: ‘That Blessed One is... blessed.’ In this way you should establish mindfulness internally based on the Realized One.


And to overcome fear:


SN 11.3

“ahañca kho, bhikkhave, evaṃ vadāmi: ‘sace tumhākaṃ, bhikkhave, araññagatānaṃ vā rukkhamūlagatānaṃ vā suññāgāragatānaṃ vā uppajjeyya bhayaṃ vā chambhitattaṃ vā lomahaṃso vā, mameva tasmiṃ samaye anussareyyātha: itipi so... bhagavā’ti. mamañhi vo, bhikkhave, anussarataṃ yaṃ bhavissati bhayaṃ vā chambhitattaṃ vā lomahaṃso vā, so pahīyissati.

But, mendicants, I say this: If you’ve gone to a wilderness, or to the root of a tree, or to an empty hut and you get scared or terrified, just recollect me: ‘That Blessed One is... blessed.’ Then your fear and terror will go away.


The formula often appears in narration, when people hear the reputation of the Buddha:


AN 3.64

taṃ kho pana bhavantaṃ gotamaṃ evaṃ kalyāṇo kittisaddo abbhuggato: ‘itipi so... bhagavā’ti . so imaṃ lokaṃ sadevakaṃ samārakaṃ sabrahmakaṃ sassamaṇabrāhmaṇiṃ pajaṃ sadevamanussaṃ sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā pavedeti. so dhammaṃ deseti ādikalyāṇaṃ majjhekalyāṇaṃ pariyosānakalyāṇaṃ sātthaṃ sabyañjanaṃ, kevalaparipuṇṇaṃ parisuddhaṃ brahmacariyaṃ pakāseti. sādhu kho pana tathārūpānaṃ arahataṃ dassanaṃ hotī”ti.

Sir Gotama has this good reputation: ‘That Blessed One is... blessed.’ He has realized with his own insight this world—with its gods, Māras and Brahmās, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—and he makes it known to others. He teaches Dhamma that’s good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And he reveals a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. It’s good to see such perfected ones.”


The formula for Buddhānussati always appears to describe the conviction (saddhā) of a disciple. Among the terms used: the faculty of conviction (saddh·indriya, SN 48.9), the accomplishment in conviction (saddhā·sampadā, AN 4.61), the strength of conviction (saddhā·bala, AN 5.2), the wealth of conviction (saddhā·dhana, AN 5.47).


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Buddhe aveccappasāda: [Buddha-avecca+pasāda] confidence in the Buddha which is confirmed by experience; verified/ confirmed confidence in the Buddha (Thanissaro B./B. Bodhi), perfect faith in the Buddha (R. Davis) - lit: 'definitely joyful on account of the Buddha'. It is one of the four sot·āpattiy·aṅgas.


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byāpāda: ill-will, malevolence. At AN 3.67, byāpāda is explained as having dosa for synonym. It falls in two categories:

1) it is one of the three mental akusala·kamma·pathas, being defined as such by the Buddha at AN 10.176.

2) it is one of the ten saṃyojanas.

♦ At SN 46.51, it is said that ayoniso manasikāra applied to a paṭigha·nimitta is the cause for the arising and multiplication of byāpāda, while yoniso manasikāra applied to mettā·cetovimutti constitutes its antidote (see here).


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C
A | B | C | D | E | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | R | S | T | U | V | Y

cāga
cāgānussati
cakkhu
cakkhundriya
caraṇa
cātummahārājika
cetanā
cetovimutti
chanda
citta
cittānupassanā
cīvara



cāga: generosity, liberality. The Buddha defines this term at AN 8.54.


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cāgānussati: [cāga+anussati] recollection of one's own generosity. It is defined by the Buddha at AN 6.10.


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cakkhu: eye. It is one of the twelve āyatanas.


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cakkhundriya: [cakkhu+indriya] faculty of sight/vision, faculty of the eye, organ of the eye. It is one of the six sensory indriyas.


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caraṇa: good conduct/ behavior.


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cātummahārājika: [catu+mahārāja-ka] class of devas, lit: 'of the four great kings', whose name is derived from the four kings, each dwelling at and protecting one quarter. They live in the first of the six deva-lokas pertaining to kāma-bhava, and thus rank as the lowest devas, below those of Tāvatimsa. They are described as taking interest in the righteousness and virtue of men at AN 3.37. Men offering dāna on the basis of greed are stated at AN 7.52 to be reborn among the cātummahārājikas. At AN 3.71 it is said that the length of a day and night in this plane of existence is equivalent to 50 human years and that the average lifespan of these devas is of one thousand such years, which equals altgether 36.5 million human years.


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cetanā: intention, volition.

1) it is one of the five constituents of nāma.

2) it is also described by the Buddha as the working principle of kamma at AN 6.63.


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cetovimutti: [citta+vimutti] liberation/emancipation of the mind, often refering to the attainment of jhānas. It is described at AN 2.32 as bringing about the fading away of rāga (taken as including as well dosa), and being attained through the practice of samatha (see the upekkhā of the fourth jhāna). This type of ceto·vimutti is sometimes described as 'sāmayika ceto·vimutti', and is contrasted with 'akuppa ceto·vimutti' or 'an-āsava ceto·vimutti paññā·vimutti', both of which refer to arahatta. Four further types of ceto·vimutti are disussed and defined at MN 43 and SN 41.7: 'appamāṇā ceto·vimutti' (which is a collective designation for another four types of ceto·vimutti, qv.), 'ākiñcaññā ceto·vimutti', 'suññatā ceto·vimutti', and 'a-nimittā ceto·vimutti'.


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chanda:

1. (negative sense:) impulse, excitement, intention, resolution, will desire for, wish for, delight in. Almost a synonym for kāma, with which it is sometimes combined as kāma-chanda, which is an enlarged term for kāma.

2. (positive sense:) zeal.


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citta: mind. It is nearly synonymous with mana and viññāṇa, but not quite. It rather refers to the mind in its subjectivity, as the theater of personnal experience where arise the three akusala·mūlas, and as what needs to be trained, unified, stilled and eventually liberated (see: adhi·citta·sikkhā and cittānupassanā).


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cittānupassanā: [citta+anupassanā] observation of the mind. It is one of the four satipaṭṭhānas. A broad definition is given at SN 47.40 and more detailed one in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta: it consists of awareness regarding whether or not the mind is affected by rāga, dosa, moha , or if it is saṅkhitta, mahaggata, sa-uttara, samāhita, or vimutta.
Derivative: cittānupassī.


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cīvara: robe of a bhikkhu. It is one of the four paccayas, requisites of a bhikkhu's life.


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D
A | B | C | D | E | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | R | S | T | U | V | Y

dāna
dassana
deva, devatā
devatānussati
dhamma
dhammacakkhu
dhammādāsa
dhammānudhammappaṭipatti
dhammānupassanā
dhammānusārī
dhammānussati
dhammavicaya
Dhamma-Vinaya
Dhamme aveccappasāda
dhātu
dibbacakkhu
diṭṭhe(va) dhamme
diṭṭhi
diṭṭhinijjhānakkhanti
diṭṭhisampanna
diṭṭhupādāna
domanassa
domanassindriya
duccarita
duggati
dukkaṭa
dukkha
dukkhasamudaya
dukkhanirodha
dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā
dukkhavedanā
dukkhindriya
dutiya



dāna: act of giving, gift, donation; almsgiving, charity, liberality.


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dassana: seeing, sight, vision.


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deva, devatā: beings having generally a happy existence in a celestial plane. They are usually invisible to untrained human beings. As all other beings, they are subject to anicca, jarā and maraṇa. After death, they can be reborn in decrease as a human being or even as unhappy beings living in a duggati.

Three kinds of devas can be distinguished: those who are in kāma-loka, still primarily motived by kāma-rāga: cātummahārājika, Tāvatimsa, Yāma, tusita, Nimmānaratī and paranimmitavasavattī devas; secondly those who are in the part of Brahmā-loka which is called rūpa-loka, who are composed of fine matter, who have (at least temporarily) transcended kāma, and are also referred to as brahmas or (for the lowest of them) Brahmakāyikas; thirdly those brahmas who live in a-rūpa-loka, totally disconnected from matter. The life-span of the six types of devas in kāma-loka is detailed at AN 3.71. The life-span of the brahmas is given at AN 4.123.


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devatānussati: [devatā+anussati] recollection of the devas. It is defined by the Buddha at AN 6.10.


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dhamma: several aspects of the word may be distinguished:

1) in its most general sense, it designates all the phenomena of the universe, including Nibbāna. It could be in this context be translated as 'thing' or 'phenomenon'.

2) mental phenomenon, mental state, mental content.

3) teaching - whether of the Buddha or of some other teacher.

4) nature or quality or property or characteristic of a phenomenon. In compounds, it may mean: 'having the nature of--' or 'being by nature subject to--', ex: vipariṇāma·dhamma

5) the law of Nature, the liberating law taught by the Buddha.
It is also the second of the tiratana and the tisaraṇa.


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dhammacakkhu: [dhamma+cakkhu] the eye of dhamma. An expression for the realization of sotāpatti.


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dhammādāsa: [dhamma+ādāsa] the mirror of the dhamma. Specific teaching given by the Buddha by which everyone can determine whether or not he is a sotāpanna. This exposition iss found at DN 16: it consists of the acknowledgement in oneself of

1. Buddhe aveccappasāda
2. Dhamme aveccappasāda
3. Saṅghe aveccappasāda
4. a sīla which is developed to perfection.


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dhammānudhammappaṭipatti: [dhammānudhamma+paṭipatti] practice of the dhamma in all its parts/ in its fullness; (B. Bodhi:) practice in accordance with the dhamma. It is one of the four sot·āpattiy·aṅgas.


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dhammānupassanā: [dhamma+anupassanā] observation of mental phenomena. It is one of the four satipaṭṭhānas. A broad definition is given at SN 47.40 and a more detailed one in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta. It consists of:

1. the awareness regarding whether or not the mind is affected by the five nīvaraṇas

2. observation of the arising and passing away of the five upādāna·kkhandhas

3. observation of the arising of the saṃyojanas in the twelve āyatanas

4. observation of the arising of the bojjhaṅgas

5. observation of the four ariya·saccas.


Derivative: dhammānupassī.


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dhammānusārī: [dhamma+anusārī] Dhamma-follower, one relying on discernment. A definition is given at MN 70. Other definitions are given in each of the suttas of the Okkanti Saṃyutta (SN 25), in terms of degrees of acceptation after pondering with a modicum of discernment about the reality of anicca in various dhammas: the twelve āyatanas, the five khandhas, the six types of phassa etc.

♦ In all these suttas, it is further said of dhammānusārīs: "abhabbo ca tāva kālaṃ kātuṃ yāva na sotāpattiphalaṃ sacchikaroti" ("it is impossible for such a person to die without experiencing the fruit of sotāpatti"), and equivalent statements are made in the conclusions to MN 22 and MN 34.


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dhammānussati: [dhamma+anussati] recollection of the Dhamma. It is defined by the Buddha at AN 6.10. The formula is analyzed there.


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dhammavicaya: [dhamma+vicaya] investigation of mental phenomena/ of the dhamma. Here dhamma may be taken as meaning the teaching of the Buddha, the law of nature or mental phenomena, and thus there is investigation both of the teaching and of the mental states it describes. It is one of the seven bojjhaṅgas.


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Dhamma-Vinaya: [dhamma+vinaya] Teaching & Discipline expounded by the Buddha.


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Dhamme aveccappasāda: [dhamma+avecca+pasāda] confidence in the dhamma which is confirmed by experience; verified/ confirmed confidence in the dhamma (Thanissaro B./B. Bodhi), perfect faith in the dhamma (R. Davis) - lit: 'definitely joyful on account of the dhamma'. It is one of the four sot·āpattiy·aṅgas.

dhātu:

1) a primary element, of which the usual set comprises the four paṭhavī, āpo, tejo, vāyo (earth water, fire, wind), otherwise termed cattāro mahābhūtā(ni). MN 140 is a detailed exposition on the matter.

2) natural condition, property, disposition

3) factor, item

4) principle


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dibbacakkhu: [dibba+cakkhu] devic eye. A supra-normal power.


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diṭṭhe(va) dhamme: [diṭṭha+dhamma] lit: in visible phenomena, i.e. in this world, in the present existence, in the visible world (ThanB: here and now). Contrasted with samparāyika (belonging to a future state, to another world).


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diṭṭhi: view, speculative opinion, belief, credo, dogma, doctrine. Generally designates a wrong view. Sammādiṭṭhi is the first constituent of the ariya aṭṭh·aṅgika magga, and consists in considering the four ariya·saccas. When the prefix sammā· is absent, the word diṭṭhi generally designates a wrong view. The Buddha exhaustively expounds the 62 wrong views in the Brahmajāla Sutta. Diṭṭhis are one of the seven anusayas. See also sammādiṭṭhi.


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diṭṭhinijjhānakkhanti: [diṭṭhi+nijjhāna+khanti]

acceptance of a view after meditating on it. See the analysis provided in footnote 8 here.

diṭṭhinijjhānakkhanti appears often in two sets of either erroneous or uncertain grounds for accepting a teaching or a view:

♦ In conjunction with anussava, paramparā (what has been transmitted [by a tradition]), itikira (general consensus), piṭakasampadāna (what has been handed down in a collection of texts), takkahetu (the basis of logical reasoning), nayahetu (the basis of inference), ākāraparivitakka (deep reflection), bhabbarūpatā (what seems probable), and "samaṇo no garū"ti ([the thought:] 'The samaṇa is our revered teacher'). See AN 3.66; AN 3.67 and AN 4.193.

♦ In conjunction with saddhā, ruci (liking), anussava, and ākāraparivitakka (deep reflection). At SN 35.153, these five are contrasted with "having seen phenomenas with discernment" (dhammā paññāya disvā). At SN 12.68 they are contrasted with "I know, I see" (jānāmi, passāmi). At MN 95, they are presented as five improper grounds to draw a definite conclusion (ekaṃsena niṭṭhaṃ gacchati).


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diṭṭhisampanna: [diṭṭhi+sampanna] one accomplished in view.


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diṭṭhupādāna: [diṭṭhi+upādāna] clinging to views. It is one of the four upādānas.


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domanassa: [do+manas] mental unpleasantness, grief, affliction, gloom.


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domanassindriya: [domanassa+indriya] faculty of mental unpleasantness. It is defined at SN 48.38 as any mental unpleasantness. It is one of the five sensitive indriyas.


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dosa: aversion, anger, hatred. At AN 3.67, dosa is explained as having byāpāda for synonym. It is one of the three akusala·mūlas.


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duccarita: [du+carita] bad conduct, misbehavior, erroneous action, wrong conduct, evil behavior. It is divided in three types:

1. kāya-duccarita
2. vacī-duccarita
3. mana-duccarita

See also akusala·kamma·patha.


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duggati: [du+gati] painful condition, painful way, painful state. Antonym of sugati. Synonym of vinipāta and apāya, with which duggati is very often associated. There are four of them: birth as an asura, in pettivisaya, in tiracchāna·yoni and in niraya. Beings are lead to such states of existence by adopting the ten akusala kamma·pathas: see AN 10.176.


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dukkaṭa: [du+kata] wrong-doing. Class of offenses to the Vinaya which are relatively minor and are rsolved by a simple confession.


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dukkha: unsatisfactoriness, unpleasantness, suffering, pain, misery, discomfort. No English word can alone convey properly the full range of meanings. It appears in various contexts:

1) as dukkha ariya·sacca, in which context dukkha refers to the insatisfying and unsecure nature of all conditioned phenomena (saṅkhāras) which, because of their nature of anicca, result in dukkha for whoever gets attached to them. Note that here dukkha includes also sukhavedanā and somanassa. Dukkha ariya·sacca is expounded by the Buddha in the Dhamma·cakka·ppavattana Sutta. In this connection, the brahmacariya lived by the bhikkhus is often described as aiming to the full understanding of dukkha, since the full understanding of the ariya·saccas brings about liberation.

2) as dukkha·vedanā in the context of sensations: pain, unpleasant sensation, bodily unpleasantness.

3) as one of the ti·lakkhaṇa.

♦ At AN 4.49, seeing as sukha something which is actually dukkha constitutes one of four saññā·vipallāsa (distortions of perception), citta·vipallāsa (perversions of the mind), diṭṭhi·vipallāsa (inversions of views), the other three being the corresponding misunderstanding of aniccā, anatta and asubha.


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dukkhasamudaya: [dukkha+samudaya] arising of suffering origin of suffering. It is the second ariya·sacca, expounded by the Buddha in the Dhamma·cakka·ppavattana Sutta.


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dukkhasaññā: [dukkha+saññā]

perception of suffering.


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dukkhanirodha: [dukkha+nirodha] cessation of suffering. It is the third ariya·sacca and is expounded by the Buddha in the Dhamma·cakka·ppavattana Sutta.


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dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā:
[dukkha·nirodha+gāminī+paṭipadā] path leading to the cessation of suffering. It is the fourth ariya·sacca and is expounded by the Buddha in the Dhamma·cakka·ppavattana Sutta. It is identical with the ariya aṭṭh·aṅgika magga:

1. sammā·diṭṭhi
2. sammā·saṅkappo
3. sammā·vācā
4. sammā·kammanta
5. sammā·ājīva
6. sammā·vāyāma
7. sammā·sati
8. sammā·samādhi


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dukkhavedanā: unplesant feeling/sensation, pain [dukkha+vedanā]. It is one of the three (main) types of vedanās.


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dukkhindriya: [dukkha+indriya] faculty of pain/discomfort. It is defined at SN 48.38 as any bodily unpleasantness. It is one of the five sensitive indriyas.


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dutiya: second.


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E
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eka
ekagga
ekaggatā
ekatta
ekāyana magga
evaṃ me sutaṃ



eka: one.


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ekagga: [eka] (regarding the mind:) unified, concentrated on its object, having calmed down all tendencies to grasp multiple objects (thoughts, memories etc.).


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ekaggatā: [ekagga+-ta] unification/ tranquillity of the mind, state of having an unified mind entirely concentrated on its object, having calmed down all tendencies to grasp multiple objects (thoughts, memories etc.). Appears often in the expression 'cittassa ekaggatā': unification/ tranquillity of the mind.


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ekatta: [eka+-tta] lit: 'state of being one'.

1) unity.

2) solitude.

3) agreement.


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ekāyana magga: [eka+ayana magga] the path leading towards one destination only, the direct path, path leading to one goal (PTSD). See detailed article.


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evaṃ me sutaṃ: [evaṃ - me - sutaṃ] thus have I heard - lit: 'thus was heard by me'. According to the tradition, during the first council, during the few months following the demise of the Buddha, Ānanda recited word for word all the discourses of the Buddha he had heard thanks to his stupendous memory. He repeated these three words before reciting each sutta.


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G
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gati: destination. They are explained at MN 12 as fivefold: niraya, tiracchāna·yoni, pettivisaya, the human world and devas.


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ghāṇa: nose. It is one of the twelve āyatanas.


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ghāṇindriya: [ghāṇa+indriya] faculty of smelling, sense of smell, faculty of the nose, organ of the nose. It is one of the six sensory indriyas.


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H
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hetu: cause, reason, motive, origin. Almost a synonym of paccaya, appearing often in conjunction with it in the expression: 'ko hetu, ko paccayo...': 'what is the cause, what is the reason...'.


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hiri (and hirī): conscientiousness (moral scruple), sense of shame, bashfulness. To be undestood as a particular conscientiousness that arises through association with ariyas or extensively well-behaved people, and the desire to be worthy of that association by matching their high standard of good conduct. Often contrasted to and combined with ottappa. See detailed article.


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I
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iddhi
iddhipāda
indriya
indriyesu guttadvāratā
iriyāpatha



iddhi: potency

1) psychic/ supernormal power

2) spiritual power

3) success.


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iddhipāda: [iddhi+pāda] basis for potencies. Iddhipādas lead to the matery of iddhis. The latter become accessible to meditators by the practice of samādhi beyond the fourth jhāna. There are four iddhipādā:

1. chanda·samādhi·ppadhāna·saṅkhāra·samannāgata iddhi·pāda
2. vīriya·samādhi·ppadhāna·saṅkhāra·samannāgata iddhi·pāda
3. citta·samādhi·ppadhāna·saṅkhāra·samannāgata iddhi·pāda
4. vīmaṃsā·samādhi·ppadhāna·saṅkhāra·samannāgata iddhi·pāda


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indriya: faculty, controlling principle, directive force. They are so called because they exercise power over particular fields of phenomena, as Indra (from whom they acquire their name) exercises power over the devas. The term appears in different sets:

1) the five spiritual powers:

1. saddhā
2. vīriya
3. sati
4. samādhi
5. paññā

2) the six sense faculties: cakkhundriya, sotindriya, ghāṇindriya, jivhindriya, kāyindriya and manindriya.

3) the five sensitive faculties, which are listed at SN 48.38: sukhindriya, dukkhindriya, somanassindriya, domanassindriya and upekkh·indriya.


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indriyasaṃvara: [indriya+saṃvara]
sense restraint. See next entry.


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indriyesu guttadvāratā: [indriya gutta+dvāra] state of guarding the doors of the sense faculties. It is identical with saṃvara. This practice is described in stock formulae which are analyzed in detail here.


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iriyāpatha: postures of the body. They are numbered as four: walking, standing, sitting and lying down.


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jāgariyaṃ anuyoga
jarā
jarāmaraṇa
jāti
jhāna
jīva
jivhā
jivhindriya



jāgariyaṃ anuyoga: [jāgariyā anuyoga] dedication to wakefulness. This practice is described in a stock formula which is analyzed in detail here. Derivative: jāgariyaṃ anuyutta.


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jarā: old age.


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jarāmaraṇa: [jarā+maraṇa] old age and death. It is the twelfth and last link of paṭicca·samuppāda, conditioned by jāti. Jarā-maraṇa is defined by the Buddha at SN 12.2.


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jāti: birth, i.e. the entire process from conception to parturition. Jāti is defined by the Buddha at SN 12.2. For some beings, the birth is not immediate and requires a maturation in the mother's body, as it is the case for humans and animals; for some other beings, the birth is immediate: those are called opapātiko.

Jāti is the eleventh link of paṭicca·samuppāda, conditioned by bhava and giving rise to jarā-maraṇa.


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jhāna: absorption of concentration in meditation. Refers to specific mental states attained by the development of samatha and samādhi during the practice of meditation. The formulae describing the jhānas are accessible here and there. sammā·samādhi is defined as consisting of the development of the first four jhānas: see the definition at SN 45.8.

The fourth jhāna is described as the basis for the attainment of iddhis, and the six abhiññās as stated for example at AN 3.102.

There are also four higher jhānas, attained by the continuation of practice beyond the fourth jhāna, which are described at SN 54.8. Sometimes, the cessation of saññā and vedanā i.e. the attainment of Nibbāna is described as a ninth jhāna, as it is the case at AN 9.41.

The development of jhānas requires the suppression of the five nīvaraṇa, and the culture of viveka. At SN 54.8, the Buddha recommands ānāpānassati as a way to develop the jhānas. They are the main element making the brahmacariya agreeable and easeful.


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jīva: life, vital principle, individual soul.


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jivhā: tongue. It is one of the twelve āyatanas.


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jivhindriya: [jivhā+indriya] faculty of tasting, sense of taste, faculty of the tongue, organ of the tongue. It is one of the six sensory indriyas.


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K
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kabaḷīkāra
kalyāṇa
kalyāṇamittatā
kāma
kāmabhava
kāma·cchanda
kāmaguṇa
kāmaloka
kāmarāga
kāmataṇhā
kāmesumicchācāra
kāmesumicchācāra veramaṇī
kamma
kāmupādāna
kappa
karuṇā
kaṭhina
kāya
kāyagatāsati
kāyānupassanā
kāyindriya
khandha
khanti
khattiya
khīṇāsava
kilesa
kusala
kusalakammapatha
kusalamūla



kabaḷīkāra: edible food. It is one of the four āhāras. The Buddha describes how the nutriment of food should be considered at SN 12.63.


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kalyāṇa: fortunate, happy, advantageous, beautiful, pleasant, good, virtuous. Almost a synonym of kusala.


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kalyāṇamittatā: [kalyāṇa+mittatā] favorable friendship.


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kāma: sensuality, sensual desire, sensual pleasure and all that goes along with it. Two main meanings can be distinguished:

1) sensual pleasure, often described as pertaining to the five kāma·guṇas.

2) sensual desire, characterized by saṅkappa-rāga. As such, it is one of the five nīvaraṇas (termed kāma·cchanda) and one of the greatest obstacles to the brahmacariya.

At AN 6.63 the Buddha declares that actual sensuality is no to be found in external objects but in the mind, and the tue meaning of the term thus corresponds to the definition 2).

kāma holds a chief position in all the list of mental phenomena obstructing the development: nīvaraṇas, upādānas, āsava, saṃyojanas, anusayas, oghas.


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kāmabhava: [kāma+bhava] existence/ becoming in the realm of sense desire (kāmaloka), which is taken as meaning the six lower deva-lokas (cātummahārājika, Tāvatimsa, Yāma, tusita, Nimmānaratī and paranimmitavasavattī), together with the human plane and the four duggatis (asura, pettivisaya, tiracchāna·yoni and niraya). Kāma-bhava is one of the three types of bhava.


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kāmacchanda: [kāma+chanda] sense desire - stands as an enlarged form of kāma. Almost synonym with kāma·rāga.

♦ It sometimes appears in the list of the five nīvaraṇas instead of abhijjhā, notably in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta.

♦ It is one of the five saṃyojanas which are totally eradicated by an anāgāmī.

♦ At SN 46.51, it is said that ayoniso manasikāra applied to a subha·nimitta is the cause for the arising and multiplication of kāma·cchanda, while yoniso manasikāra applied to an asubhanimitta constitutes its antidote (see here).


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kāmaguṇa: [kāma+guṇa] cords of sensual pleasures. Always described as fivefold, they are defined by the Buddha at MN 59.


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kāmaloka: [kāma+loka] planes of sense desire. Designates altogether the four vinipātas (asura, pettivisaya, tiracchāna·yoni and niraya), the human world, and the six inferior deva-lokas (cātummahārājika, Tāvatimsa, Yāma, tusita, Nimmānaratī and paranimmitavasavattī), where beings are primarily motivated by kāma.


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kāmarāga: [kāma+rāga] sensual passion, strong avidity for sensual pleasures. Almost synonym with kāma·cchanda. It is one of the seven anusayas.


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kāmataṇhā: [kāma+taṇhā] desire for sensual pleasures. It is one of the three types of taṇhā.


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kāmesumicchācāra: [kāma+micchā+cāra] misconduct in sensual pleasures. It is one of the three bodily akusala·kamma·pathas. kāmesu·micchā·cāra is defined by the Buddha at AN 10.176. Its unpleasant consequences are described at AN 8.40.


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kāmesumicchācāra veramaṇī: [kāmesu·micchā·cāra+veramaṇī] abstention from misconduct in sensual pleasures. It is the third of the pañcasīla.


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kamma: action, deed, work, intentional act which conditions future destiny and rebirths (aka. sankrit: karma).

At AN 6.63, the Buddha identifies kamma with cetanā. At AN 5.57, the Buddha declares everyone should frequently think about kamma and remember he is nothing but the product of his past actions. Kamma is also analysed in different ways:

1) as twofold:

1. kusala-kamma
2. akusala-kamma
i.e. bearing pleasant or unpleasant results. See: kusala·kamma·patha and akusala·kamma·patha.

2) as threefold: partaining to

1. kāya
2. vacā
3. mana
See AN 6.63.

3) in terms of vipāka it is also threefold:

1. arising in this life
2. in the next life
3. in subsquent future lives
See AN 6.63.

4) its diversity is fivefold:

1. niraya-vedanīyaṃ
2. tiracchāna·yoni-vedanīyaṃ
3. pettivisaya--vedanīyaṃ
4. manussa-loka-vedanīyaṃ
5. deva-loka-vedanīyaṃ
See AN 6.63.

5) as sixfold: arising on account of:

1. lobha
2. dosa
3. moha
4. alobha
5. adosa
6. amoha
See AN 3.112.


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kāmupādāna: [kāma+upādāna] clinging to sensual pleasures. It is one of the four upādānas.


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kappa: aeon, world cycle. An unconceivably long period of time. At SN 15.5, the Buddha explains that by rubbing a mountain every hundred years with a silky cloth, the mountain would be sooner eroded than the kappa would come to its end.


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kasiṇa:

1) (adj:) entire, whole

2) (n:) particular type of meditation object (each of the four elements, four colors, space and consciousness), to be attended to undividedly.


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karuṇā: compassion, pity, mercy, i.e. empathy for those who are afflicted by suffering. It is one of the four brahmavihāras. The practice of karuṇā as a brahmavihāra is described at AN 3.66.


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kaṭhina: ceremony held at the end of the vassa. See detailed article.


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kāya:

1) collection

2) multitude

3) body. As a cognitive organ, it is one of the twelve āyatanas.


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kāyagatāsati: [kaya+gata+sati] mindfulness directed to the body. Kāyagatāsati is defined in detail by the Buddha at MN 119 and is almost equated to kāyānupassanā, the first of the four satipaṭṭhānas.


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kāyānupassanā: [kāya+anupassanā] observation of body. It is one of the four satipaṭṭhānas. A broad definition is given at SN 47.40 and more detailed one in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta: it consists of

1. developpement of ānāpānassati
2. of mindfulness of the four iriyāpathas
3. of sampajañña at all times
4. of paṭikūla-manasikāra
5. of dhātu-manasikāra
6. of observation of sivathikas.

Derivative: kāyānupassī.


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kāyindriya: [kāya+indriya] faculty of proprioception, sense of proprioception, faculty of the body as a sense organ. It is one of the six sensory indriyas.


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khandha:

1) general meaning: a mass, a heap, a collection of, 'all that constitutes/ is comprised under...' (ex: dukkha-khandha: all that constitutes dukkha).

2) specific meaning: used as the concise way to designate the five aggregates of attachment, which are generally called upādāna·kkhandhas.

Here a being is viewed as the collection of five aggregates of phenomena, to which untrained beings are deeply attached out of ignorance, considering them - without discerning them - as constituents of their attā, which is described as the ultimate nature ofdukkha by the formula 'saṃkhittena pañcupādānakkhandhā dukkhā': see for example SN 56.11.

These five are:

1. rūpa
2. vedanā
3. Saññā
4. saṅkhāra
5. Viññāṇa

They are defined at SN 22.79. It is stated at MN 43 that vedanā, Saññā and Viññāṇaare deeply associated and that it is impossible to clearly separate one from another to show their difference.


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khanti: patience, forbearance, tolerance.


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khattiya: aristocrats.


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khīṇāsava: [khīṇa+āsava] designation for an arahant - lit: one in whom the impurities of the mind have been destroyed.


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kilesa: corruptions/ defilements of the mind. There is no explicit definition given in the suttas, although the term appears quite often. But there are definitions of the term upakkilesa.


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kusala: characterizes all which has pleasant and happy results: advantageous, meritorious, skilful, virtuous, morally good, good, right, prosperous, salutary, skilful. Especially used in its moral sense.

The Commentary defines the term as having three meanings:
1. (psychologically, spiritually) healthy
2. blameless
3. productive of pleasant and favourable results.

Kusala can also be defined as what arises on the basis of the three kusala·mūlas. In terms of action, ten main kusala actions are listed and called together kusala·kamma·pathas.


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kusalakammapatha: [kusala+kamma+patha] paths of advantageous/ meritorious action. There are ten kusala-kamma·pathas, classified under bodily, verbal and mental. They are thus described by the Buddha at AN 10.176.

The three bodily kusala-kamma·pathas are:

1. abstaining from pāṇātipāta
2. from adinnādāna
3. from kāmesu·micchā·cāra

The four verbal kusala-kamma·pathas are:

4. abstaining from musā·vāda
5. from pisuṇa·vācā
6. from pharusa·vāca
7. from samphappalāpa

The three mental kusala-kamma·pathas are:

8. abstaining from abhijjha
9. from byāpāda
10. from micchā·diṭṭhi

These ten kusala-kamma·pathas correspond to sammā·saṅkappa, sammā·vācā and sammā·kammanta, since nekkhamma consists mainly in abandoning craving.


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kusalamūla: [kusala+mūla] roots/ sources of what is advantageous. The term is defined by Sāriputta at MN 9 as consisting of

1. alobha
2. adosa
3. amoha


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L
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lābhasakkārasiloka: [lābha+sakkāra+siloka]

honors, gain and fame. One of the greatest dangers for a bhikkhu, so much so that lābha·sakkāra·siloka has its own Saṃyutta (n°17).


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lobha: craving, desire, greed, covetousness. It is one of the three akusala·mūla. At AN 3.67, lobha is explained as having abhijjhā for synonym. It can also be considered as nearly synonym with rāga and taṇhā.


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loka: world, universe, plane of existence.


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M
A | B | C | D | E | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | R | S | T | U | V | Y

magga
mahiccha
mahicchatā
majjhimā patipadā
makkha
mana
māna
manas
manasikāra
maṅgala
manindriya
manosañcetanā
manussa
Māra
maraṇa
maraṇasaññā
maraṇassati
mettā
micchādiṭṭhi
micchāpaṭipadā
mitta
moha
muditā
mūla
musāvāda
musāvāda veramaṇī



magga: path, way, road.

1) Appears especially in the formula ariya aṭṭh·aṅgika magga which designates the fourth ariya·sacca: dukkha·nirodha·gāminī paṭipadā.

2) Designates also the four steps of the path leading to Nibbāna:

1. sotāpatti
2. sakadāgāmitā
3. anāgāmitā
4. arahatta


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mahiccha: [mahā+iccha]

1) having many desires, not easily satisfied, discontented

2) pretentious, not modest, self-aggrandizing.

The word is explained at AN 6.84 as being annoyed and not contented (vighātavā, asantuṭṭha) with the four paccayas, requisites of a bhikkhu's life.


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mahicchatā: [mahā+iccha+] greediness, desire, insatisfaction, fact of having many desires. Antonym of appicchatā. At AN 1.62, mahicchatā is presented as the ground for the arising of akusala dhammas.


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majjhimā patipadā: [majjhimā patipadā] middle way - consists in avoid the two extremes which are indulgence in sensual pleasures and mortification. It is an alternative appellation for the ariya aṭṭh·aṅgika magga. The majjhimā-patipadā is expounded by the Buddha in the Dhamma·cakka·ppavattana Sutta.


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mana: mind. It is nearly synonymous with citta and viññāṇa, but not quite. It rather refers to the mind as a cognitive organ, one of the twelve āyatanas. It is also one of the three 'doors of action': see kamma 2).


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māna: pride, conceit, arrogance. A typical occurence of māna is the propensity to compare oneself with others.

1) it is one of the ten saṃyojanas which disappear only with arahatta.

2) it is one of the seven anusayas.


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manas: mind. See mana.


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manasikāra: [manas+kāra] attention, reflection, consideration, ideation, (mental) examination.

1) It is stated in MN 9 to be one of the five constituents of nāma.

2) It is often used as (a-)yoniso manasikāra. Yoniso-manasikāra is one of the four sot·āpattiy·aṅgas.


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maṅgala: auspicious prosperous, lucky, festive.


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manindriya: [mana+indriya] faculty of the mind, organ of the mind. It is one of the six sensory indriyas.


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manosañcetanā: [mana+sañcetanā] intention. It is one of the four āhāras. The Buddha describes how manosañcetanā as āhāra should be considered at SN 12.63.


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manussa: human being.


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Māra: litt: the killer. Described as a tempter, he is the opponent of liberation. He is sometimes considered as one (living) being, sometimes as a class of beings. He appears in the suttas both as a deva - of whom the tradition says he is the ruler of the paranimmitavasavattī devas - and as a personnification of evil and passions, ruling over the totality of wordly phenomena.

These two descriptions can however be understood as one and the same insofar as he would be the foremost of the devas who control the creations of others (that is their mental constructions).


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maraṇa: death. For a precise definition, see SN 12.2.


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maraṇasaññā: [maraṇa+saññā]

perception of death. Probably a synonym for maraṇa·ssati, which is defined precisely at AN 6.20 and AN 8.74.

♦ According to AN 7.49, when one often applies his/her mind to this practice, he/she is automatically repulsed by jīvita·nikanti (desire for life).

Maraṇa·saññā is described at AN 4.163 as participating of a painful mode of practice (dukkhā paṭipadā).

♦ The seven bojjhaṅgas can be developed in conjunction with maraṇa·saññā (SN 46.73).

Maraṇa·saññā appears almost always in a list, generally with asubha·saññā, āhāre paṭikūla·saññā, and sabba·loke an·abhirata·saññā. They are often collectively recommended for the sake of understanding or removing rāga (e.g. AN 5.303).

♦ Other perceptions usually associated with maraṇa·saññā include anicca·saññā, anicce dukkha·saññā, anatta·saññā, ādīnava·saññā, pahāna·saññā, virāga·saññā and nirodha·saññā.


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maraṇassati: [maraṇa+sati]

mindfulness of death. Probably a synonym for maraṇa·saññā. This practice is explained at AN 6.20 and AN 8.74.


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mettā: loving kindness, friendliness, amity, sympathy, good will consisting of wishing happiness for others. It is one of the four brahmavihāras. The practice of mettā as a brahmavihāra is described at AN 3.66.


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micchādiṭṭhi: [micchā-diṭṭhi] wrong view. It is one of the three mental akusala·kamma·pathas. An intensified form of micchā·diṭṭhi is defined by the Buddha at AN 10.176.


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micchāpaṭipadā: [micchā+paṭipadā] wrong path/ way. Antonym of sammāpaṭipadā.


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mitta: friend.


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moha: delusion, ignorance, confusion, bewilderment. At AN 3.67, moha is explained as having avijjā for synonym. It is one of the three akusala·mūlas. Synonym of avijjā.


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muditā: altruistic or sympathetic joy, consisting of rejoicing at others' success and good fortune. It is one of the four brahmavihāras. The practice of muditā as a brahmavihāra is described at AN 3.66.


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mūla: there are four main meanings:

1) root.

2) foot, bottom, lowest part, base, foundation.

3) ground for, reason, cause, condition.

4) origin, source.
See particularly kusala·mūla and akusala·mūla.


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musāvāda: [musā+vāda] lie. It is one of the four verbal akusala·kamma·pathas. Musāvāda is defined by the Buddha at AN 10.176. Its unpleasant consequences are described at AN 8.40.


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musāvāda veramaṇī: [musāvāda veramaṇī] abstaining from lying. It is the fourth of the pañcasīla.


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N
A | B | C | D | E | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | R | S | T | U | V | Y

nāga
nāma
nāmarūpa
ñāṇa
ñāṇadassana
nekkhamma
nevasaññānāsaññāyatana
Nibbāna
nibbidā
nidāna
nimitta
nimmānaratī
nirāmisa
niraya
nirodha
nirodhasaññā
nissaraṇa
nissāya
nīvaraṇa



nāga:

1) a snake, a cobra.

2) a dragon.

3) an elephant, specially as a symbol of strengh and endurance.

4) a chief, a noble person.


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nāma:

1) name

2) mind, mentality (in contrast with matter or materiality). Appears generally in the compound nāma-rūpa. Nāma generally refers to the four mental khandhas, i.e:

1. vedanā

2. Saññā

3. saṅkhāra
4. Viññāṇa
but it is also defined by the Buddha at SN 12.2 as constituted of:

1. vedanā

2. Saññā

3. cetanā

4. phassa
5. manasikāra


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nāmarūpa: [nāma+rūpa] name and form, mind and matter, mentality-materiality. Nāma generally corresponds to the four mental khandhas, while rūpa is the material khandha.

It is the fourth link of paṭicca·samuppāda, conditioned by viññāṇa and giving rise to saḷāyatana. In this context, nāma-rūpa is defined by the Buddha at SN 12.2.


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ñāṇa: knowledge, comprehension, intelligence, insight, recognition. It is a faculty of understanding which is included in paññā. The latter designates the spiritual wisdom which embraces the fundamental truths, whereas ñāṇa is relative to common experience. At DN 9, the Buddha states that Saññā is necessary to the forming of ñāṇa, and it precedes it.


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ñāṇadassana: knowledge and vision


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nekkhamma: renunciation of worliness, giving up the world, freedom from lust, craving and desires. Antonym of kāma. Nekkhamma-saṅkappa is one of the three sammā·saṅkappas.


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nevasaññānāsaññāyatana: [neva+saññā+na+a+saññā+āyatana] the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. Considered as the 8th jhāna. See the standard description here.


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Nibbāna: Extinction, Nibbāna, nirvana, state in which nothing arises nor passes away, and characterized by complete cessation of the three akusala·mūlas (at least temporarily).


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nibbidā: disenchantment, disgust, weariness, revulsion, aversion. This mental state is used as an antidote to the nīvaraṇa of kāma·cchanda and is cultivated through the observation of repulsive objects such as dead bodies in putrefaction. It is in particular a very powerful technique to overcome sexuality.


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nidāna:

1) (n:) source, origin, cause; reason.

2) (adj in cpds:) founded on--, caused by--, originating in--, relating to--


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nimitta: has many different meanings. Only the two most useful are expounded here:

1) outward/ general appearance (in the context of sense restraint formulae).

2) object of senses, of perception, of attention, of concentration, of meditation.


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nimmānaratī: [nimmāna+ratī] class of devas so called because they delight in their own creations. They live in the fifth of the six deva-lokas pertaining to kāma-bhava, ranking between those of tusita and those of Paranimmita-vasavattī.

At AN 3.71 it is said that the length of a day and night in this plane of existence is equivalent to 800 human years and that the average lifespan of these devas is of eight thousand such years, which equals altgether 2.336 billion human years.


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nirāmisa: unwordly, having no meat, without attachement, free from sensual desires, free from worldly taint, disinterested, non-material. Opposed to sāmisa.


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niraya: hell. It is one of the four duggatis. Beings are lead to such states of existence by adopting the ten akusala·kamma·pathas: see AN 10.176. Note that a life in hell is by no means eternal.


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nirodha: cessation. Used in many cases as a synonym of Nibānna.


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nirodhasaññā: [nirodha+saññā]

perception of cessation. This practice is explained at AN 10.60.

♦ According to AN 7.27, so long as the bhikkhus practice nirodha·saññā, only growth can be expected of them, not decline.


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nissaraṇa: departure, going out, exit, escape, salvation, emancipation, leaving behind, being freed (main meaning). Often cited together with ādīnava and assāda as characteristics to be understood regarding various dhammas: the five upādāna·kkhandhas, kāma, certain diṭṭhis etc. The nissaraṇa of a particular dhamma is generally described as the removal and abandonment of the chanda-rāga towards it. The nissaraṇas of kāma, rūpa and vedanā are explained in detail at MN 13. Five nissaraṇas are listed at AN 5.200.


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nissāya: dependance


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nīvaraṇa: hindrance. Refers to five mental states which hinder the practice of meditation, i.e. the insight and the ability of the mind to experience peace. They are always listed as five:

1. kāma·cchanda/abhijjha
2. byāpāda
3. thīna·middhā
4. uddhacca-kukkucca
5. vicikicchā

For example, these five mental states are listed and referred to as nīvaraṇas at AN 9.40 and it is clear in that sutta that their abandonment is a necessary condition to attain the first jhāna. They are also referred to as {hover mouse over following words:} 'cetaso upakkilese paññāya dubbalīkaraṇe' - defilements of the mind that weaken insight. There is an interesting simile to explain these five at SN 46.55.


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O
A | B | C | D | E | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | R | S | T | U | V | Y



opanayika: conducive to, leading to (Nibānna). An epithet given to the dhamma in the stock formula which describes it.


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opapātika: taking birth spontaneously, i.e. without maturation in the mother's body. It is the case for brahmas, devas, asuras, petas and beings living in niraya. After death, opapātika being do not leave a dead body behind them. Their body disappears at the moment of their death.


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ottappa: cautiousness, prudence, scruple, moral qualm, fear of wrong doing, shrinking back form doing wrong. Often contrasted to and combined with hiri. See detailed article.


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P
A | B | C | D | E | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | R | S | T | U | V | Y

pabbajjā
paccaya
paccekabuddha
padakkhiṇa
padhāna
pahāna
pahānasaññā
pamāda
pāmojja
paṃsukūla
pāṇātipāta
pāṇātipāta veramaṇī
pañcasīla
paññā
paññāvimutti
paññāvimutto
pāpa
pāpaka
papañca
pārājika
paranimmitavasavattī
paribbājaka
parideva
parimukhaṃ
parinibbāna
passaddhi
paṭicca samuppāda
paṭigha
pātimokkha
paṭipada
paṭisallāna
paṭisaṅkhā
paviveka
peta
pettivisaya
pharusavāca
phassa
phoṭṭhabba
piṇḍapāta
pisuṇavācā
pīti
pītisukha
piyehi vippayoga dukkha
pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇa
pūjā
puñña
puthujjana



pabbajjā: going forth, taking up of the ascetic life, becoming a paribbājaka.


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paccaya: condition, resting on, falling back on, foundation cause, requisite, support.

1) it denotes the conditionality between two phenomena, the arising of the second being totally dependant on the arising of the first, chiefly in the paṭicca·samuppāda.

2) it designates the four requisites of a bhikkhu's life:

1. cīvara
2. piṇḍapāta
3. senāsana
4. bhesajja


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Paccekabuddha: lone Buddha, who does not teach.


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padakkhiṇa: mode of reverential salutation by walking round a person or object, keeping the right side turned to him.


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padhāna: effort. The fourfold definition of sammappadhāna given at AN 4.13 is exactly the same as the definition of sammā·vāyāma.


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pahāna: giving up, abandoning, abandonment, removal, getting rid of, avoidance, rejection.


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pahānasaññā: [pahāna+saññā]

perception of abandoning. This practice is explained at AN 10.60.

♦ According to AN 7.27, so long as the bhikkhus practice pahāna·saññā, only growth can be expected of them, not decline.


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pamāda: negligence, carelessness, heedlessness.


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pāmojja: serene joy.


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paṃsukūla: rags from a dust heap. Corresponds to one of the dhutaṅgas.


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pāṇātipāta: [pāṇa+atipāta] destruction of life. It is one of the three bodily akusala·kamma·pathas. Pāṇātipāta is defined by the Buddha at AN 10.176. Its unpleasant consequences are described at AN 8.40.


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pāṇātipāta veramaṇī: [pāṇātipāta+veramaṇī] abstaining from destroying life. It is the first and the most basic of the pañcasīla.


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pañcasīla: [pañca+sīla] five moral precepts that ought to be observed by everyone wishing for one's own welfare, namely:

1. pāṇātipāta veramaṇī
2. adinnādāna veramaṇī
3. kāmesu·micchā·cāra veramaṇī
4. musā-vāda veramaṇī
5. surā-meraya-majja-pamādaṭṭhāna veramaṇī

See: sīla. The unpleasant consequences of not observing these five precepts are described at AN 8.40.


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paññā: wisdom, insight, discernement, understanding. It encompasses two factors of the ariya aṭṭh·aṅgika magga: sammā·saṅkappa and sammā·diṭṭhi. Paññā can be defined as consisting of the discernment and penetration of the ti·lakkhaṇa in all phenomena. It is one of the five spiritual indriyas and the five balas. Paññā as one of the five balas is defined at AN 5.14.


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paññāvimutti: [paññā+vimutti]

liberation/emancipation through wisdom/insight, which is defined at AN 2.32 as the fading away of avijjā and is attained through the practice of vipassanā.


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paññāvimutto: [paññā+vimutti] liberated/emancipated by wisdom/insight. Adjective derived from paññā·vimutti.


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pāpa: (adj:) bad, evil, wicked, sinful | evil, wrong doing, sin.


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pāpaka: bad, evil, wicked, sinful.


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papañca: mental proliferation, intellectualism, (excessive) mental fabrication, obsessive mental construction. This obstacle often takes the form of excessive mental acitivity and reflection over matters which do not deserve particular attention.


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pārājika: entailing expulsion. Designates the most serious type of offenses to the Vinaya, following which the offender is definitely excluded from the saṅgha and will not be allowed to become a bhikkhu again in his lifetime. There are four of them: sexual intercouse, stealing, murder and lie regarding the stage of spiritual realization attained by oneself.


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paranimmitavasavattī: [paranimmita+vasavattī] class of devas so called because they control the creations of others. They live in the sixth of the six deva-lokas pertaining to kāma-bhava, ranking between those of Nimmāna-ratī and the most inferior Brahmas. Māra is said to be their ruler.

At AN 3.71 it is said that the length of a day and night in this plane of existence is equivalent to 1600 human years and that the average lifespan of these devas is of sixteen thousand such years, which equals altgether 9.344 billion human years.


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paribbājaka: wandering ascetic/ spiritual bhikkhu.


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parideva: lamentation.


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parimukhaṃ: [pari+mukha] around the mouth, around the nostrils, around the entrance (by which the air gets into the body). This word is of foremost importance in understanding the instructions given by the Buddha regarding the practice of ānāpānassati. See detailed article.


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parinibbāna: full Nibbāna. It is a synonym for Nibbāna; this term, therefore, does not refer exclusively to the ceasing of the 5 upādāna·kkhandhas at the death of an arahant, although it is often applied to it.


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passaddhi: calm, tranquillity, serenity. It is one of the seven bojjhaṅgas.

♦ At SN 46.51, it is said that yoniso manasikāra applied to kāya·passaddhi and citta·passaddhi is the way to develop and multiply passaddhi as a bojjhaṅga.


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paṭicca samuppāda: [paṭicca+samuppāda] dependant origination, origination as a necessary result from an antecedent cause. This fundamental teaching of the Buddha shows how the most important phenomena of existence condition one another, in a chain of twelve links which is said to expound the origination of eveything that pertains to suffering. See a detailed exposition at SN 12.2. There is a full Saṃyutta dedicated to the subject in the Saṃyutta Nikāya.


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paṭigha:

1) ethically: repulsion, repugnance, anger, hatred. In this sense, it is a synonym for dosa.

2) psychologically: sensory reaction. The cessation of paṭigha-saññā is a requisite condition for entering the fifth jhāna. It is said to refer to the perceptions arising on account of contact at the level of sense organs.

♦ At SN 46.51, it is said that a paṭigha·nimitta accompanied by ayoniso manasikāra is the cause for the arising and multiplication of byāpāda, which is one of the five nīvaraṇas.


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pātimokkha: code of discipline applying to the bhikkhus. There were originally no rules for them, but the Buddha started laying down these rules when the necessity arose, due to the arrival in the community of individuals requiring such rules to restrain themselves properly. The number of rules eventually amounted to 227 for the bhikkhus and 311 for the bhikkhunis.


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paṭipada: means of reaching a goal or destination, path, way, method, mode of progress, line of conduct. Almost synonym with magga. See in particular majjhimā-patipadā.


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paṭisallāna: seclusion, solitude, retirement for the purpose of meditation, privacy.


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paṭisaṅkhā: reflection, judgement, consideration.


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paviveka: seclusion, isolation, solitude.


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peta: afflicted spirit, dead, departed, mane, hungry ghost, hungry shade. May refer to the ancesters or to beings living in a state of misery. Some of them are for example described in the Lakkhaṇa Saṃyutta as having the form of a skeleton or a lump of meat constantly attacked by birds of prey. The realm of petas is one of the four duggatis. Beings are lead to such states of existence by adopting the ten akusala·kamma·pathas: see AN 10.176.


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pettivisaya: world of the manes, realm of afflicted spirits. It is one of the four duggatis. Beings are lead to such states of existence by adopting the ten akusala·kamma·pathas: see AN 10.176.


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pharusavāca: [pharusa+vācā] harsh speech. It is one of the four verbal akusala·kamma·pathas. Pharusavāca is defined by the Buddha at AN 10.176. Its unpleasant consequences are described at AN 8.40.


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phassa: contact (generally between a sense organ and its object) - samphassasamphassa in compounds. It is often described as sixfold, see e.g. MN 9. It is sometimes described as the encounter of three phenomena: 'Cakkhu·ñca paṭicca rūpe ca uppajjati cakkhu-viññāṇaṃ. Tiṇṇaṃ saṅgati phasso' (and so on for the other five sense doors at SN 35.60). It generally appears in the following contexts:

1) as the sixth link paṭicca·samuppāda, conditioned by saḷāyatana and giving rise to vedanā. In this context, phassa is defined by the Buddha in six categories at SN 12.2, pertaining to each of the sense organs.

2) as one of the four āhāras. The Buddha describes how the nutriment of contact should be considered at SN 12.63.

3) as one of the four constituents of nāma.

4) in the Brahmajāla Sutta, the Buddha insists at length on phassa being the main phenomenon conditioning the arising of micchā·diṭṭhi.


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phoṭṭhabba: tangible bodily phenomenon - lit: tangible, touch, contact (grd. of phusati, to touch). Being one of the six types of sense objects, it is one of the twelve āyatanas.


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piṇḍapāta: food received in the alms-bowl by a bhikkhu. It is one of the four paccayas, requisites of a bhikkhu's life.


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pisuṇavācā: [pisuṇa+vācā] malicious speech. It is one of the four verbal akusala·kamma·pathas. Pisuṇavācā is defined by the Buddha at AN 10.176. Its unpleasant consequences are describeed at AN 8.40.


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pīti: exaltation, rapture, joy, delight, bliss, mental pleasantness.

1) it appears chiefly in the context of the jhānas, where it refers to a pleasant mental experience. It is not a physical phenomenon, it is rather said to belong to sankhārakkhandha. It is a factor of entry in the first jhāna, and it disappears at the entry in the third jhāna.

2) it is one of the seven bojjhaṅgas. Pīti is not necessarily free from kāma: it can be sāmisa as well as nirāmisa: see SN 36.31.


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pītisukha: [pīti+sukha] rapture and well being. Pīti refers to a mental phenomenon whereas sukha refers to a bodily phenomenon. It is a factor of entry in the first jhāna, and it disappears at the entry in the third jhāna.


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piyehi vippayoga dukkha: [piya vippayoga dukkha] suffering of being separated from what is pleasant/ dear.


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pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇa: [pubbe+nivāsa+anussati+ñāṇa] knowlege of remembrance of one's former states of existence. It is one of the three vijjās. The formula defining it is analyzed there.


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pūjā: honour, worship, devotional attention. It is said at DN 16:

'And celestial coral flowers and heavenly sandalwood powder from the sky rain down upon the body of the Tathāgata (...) heavenly instruments makes music in the air out of reverence for the Tathāgata. Yet it is not thus, Ānanda, that the Tathāgata is respected, venerated, esteemed, worshiped, and honored in the highest degree.

But, Ānanda, whatever bhikkhu or bhikkhuni, layman or laywoman, abides by the Dhamma, lives uprightly in the Dhamma, walks in the way of the Dhamma, it is by such a one that the Tathāgata is respected, venerated, esteemed, worshiped, and honored in the highest degree.'


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puñña: merit, meritorious action, righteousness. It is a popular term for kusala-kamma, and often refers to the gift of food, robes, medicines and logings to the bhikkhus.


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puthujjana: ordinary/ average/ run-of-the-mill/ person, common worldling. Designates someone who is ignorant about the teaching of the Buddha.


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rāga: avidity, craving, desire, greed, lust. Synonym of lobha and taṇhā.


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rūpa:

1) Matter, materiality. Matter is constituted of four elements: water, earth, air and fire.

2) Body. Rūpa is one of the five upādāna·kkhandhas. It is often cited as a constituent of nāma-rūpa, where nāma is taken as a collective term for the other four khandhas. A definition of Rūpa as a khandha is given by the Buddha at SN 22.79.

3) Object of sight, visible form.


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rūpabhava: [rūpa+bhava] existence/ becoming in the realm of form, which is taken as meaning particular types of Brahmā-lokas i.e. planes accessible only to those who master at least the first jhāna. Rūpabhava is one of the three types of bhava.


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sabbaloke anabhiratasaññā
sabbasaṅkhāresu aniccānupassī
saddhā
saddhamma
saddhammassavana
saddhānusārī
sādhu
sagga
sakadāgāmī
sakadāgāmitā
sakkāya
sakkāyadiṭṭhi
saḷāyatana
samādhi
samāhita
samaṇa
samāpatti
samatha
sambodhi
sambojjhaṅga
sambuddha
sāmisa
sammāājīva
sammādiṭṭhi
sammākammanta
sammāpaṭipadā
sammappadhāna
sammāsamādhi
sammāsambodhi
sammāsambuddha
sammāsaṅkappa
sammāsati
sammāvācā
sammāvāyāma
sampajañña
sampajāna
samphappalāpa
saṃsāra
samseva
samudaya
saṃvara
saṃvega
saṃyojana
sandiṭṭhika
saṅgha
saṅghādisesa
saṅghānussati
saṅghe aveccappasāda
saṅkappa
saṅkhāra
saṅkhata
saññā
saññāvedayitanirodha
santuṭṭhitā
sappurisa
sappurisasaṃseva
sati
satimā
satipaṭṭhāna
satisampajañña
sato
satta
sattānaṃ cutūpapātañāṇa
sāvajja
sāvaka
sekha
senāsana
sikkhā
sikkhāpada
sīla
sīlabbata
sīlabbata parāmāsa
sīlabbatupādāna
sīlānussati
sivathika
soka
somanassa
somanassindriya
sota
sotāpanna
sotāpatti
sotāpattiyaṅga
sotindriya
subha
sucarita
sugata
sugati
sukha
sukhavedanā
sukhindriya
surāmerayapāna
surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhāna
surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhāna veramaṇī
suta
sutavā



sabbaloke anabhiratasaññā: [sabba+loka an+abhirata+saññā]

perception of distaste for the entire world, perception of non-delight in all the world. This practice is explained at AN 10.60.

♦ According to AN 7.49, when one often applies his/her mind to this practice, he/she is automatically repulsed by loka·citra (beautiful things of the world).

Sabba·loke an·abhirata·saññā is described at AN 4.163 as participating of a painful mode of practice (dukkhā paṭipadā).

Sabba·loke an·abhirata·saññā appears always in a list, generally with asubha·saññā, maraṇa·saññā, and āhāre paṭikūla·saññā. They are often collectively recommended for the sake of understanding or removing rāga (e.g. AN 5.303).

♦ Other perceptions usually associated with āhāre paṭikūla·saññā include anicca·saññā, anicce dukkha·saññā, anatta·saññā, ādīnava·saññā, pahāna·saññā, virāga·saññā and nirodha·saññā.


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sabbasaṅkhāresu aniccānupassī: [sabba+saṅkhāra anicca+anupassī]

observing inconstancy in all conditioned phenomena. Since all phenomena are ultimately saṅkhāras, this expression comes across as an emphatic way of referring to the practice of anicca·saññā.

Sabba·saṅkhāresu anicc·ānupassī is described at AN 4.163 as participating of a painful mode of practice (dukkhā paṭipadā).

'sabba·saṅkhāresu anicc·ānupassī [viharati]' appears generally in a list, together with asubha·saññā, sabba·loke an·abhirata·saññā, āhāre paṭikūla·saññā, and maraṇa·saññā. They are often collectively recommended for the sake of understanding or removing rāga (e.g. AN 5.303).


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saddhā: conviction. The conviction of a Buddha's disciple is chiefly expressed in the three anussatis. However, as explained at MN 27, this conviction must always be rooted in yathā·bhūtaṃ understanding and remain circumspect until the various stages of realization are attained. Thus, conviction has to leave reasonable space for doubt and should never become blind. A disciple having reached sotāpatti, having experienced Nibānna, has totally destroyed vicikicchā and has gained an unshakable conviction. Saddhā is one of the five spiritual indriyas and the five balas. Saddhā as one of the five balas is defined at AN 5.14.


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saddhamma: [sant+dhamma] actual dhamma, correct teaching, authentic dhamma i.e. which is (in line with) the law of nature, by opposition to other teachings which are incomplete, erroneous or counterfeit.


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saddhammassavana: [sant+dhamma+savana] hearing the correct teaching/ the authentic dhamma which is (in line with) the law of nature. It is one of the four sot·āpattiy·aṅgas.


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saddhānusārī: [saddhā+anusārī] conviction-follower, one relying on conviction. A definition is given at MN 70. Other definitions are given in each of the suttas of the Okkanti Saṃyutta (SN 25), in terms of degrees of convictionand belief about the reality of anicca in various dhammas: the twelve āyatanas, the five khandhas, the six types of phassa etc.

♦ In all these suttas, it is further said of saddhānus